Loblolly Pine Forest

Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda) Forest

Loblolly pine is the mainstay of the forest products in the southeastern forest of North America. Loblolly pine (and hybrids thereof) is the single most important species across this general region though, of course, other species including pines are the major lumber/pulp species in portions of the southeastern forest region (eg. slash pine in peninsular Florida). The classic though dated reference for loblolly pine probably is still the monograph by Wahlenberg (1960) with the work of Schultz (1997) a fine successor.

Organization note: this is the chapter with complete coverage of loblolly pine forest range in Range Types of North America.

1. Trunk of loblolly pine- This is the typical pattern and color of bark on this the largest of the four major pine species in the Southern Pine Region. Appropriately the bark bears the burnished coloration of past cool surface fires. A Virginia creeper or woodbine (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) with newly emerged leaves was climbing the attractive trunk.

Crocket National Forest, Houston County, March.

2. Bough of loblolly pine- Needles, twig bark, and old cones of loblolly pine showing key features of this major industrial forest species of the Texas Pineywoods.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas.

3. Cones of loblolly pine- Relative size, shape, and unique gross features of loblolly pine were presented in these two views of two cones of the dominant pine over much of the southeastern portion of the deciduous forest of North America in cluding the pineywoods of east Texas and western Louisiana. The reproductive (sexual) organs of conifers are borne on a woody or fleshy (berry-like) structure that is designated a strobulus (strobili is the plural). These stroboli are called cones by foresters and most regular folk other than "real" botanists. Conifers produce separate male (staminate) and female (ovulate) cones so that this group of gymnosperms are either diocecious or monecious. Moneciousness is the general arrangement for most genera in Pinaceae (Pinus, Abies, Picea, Tsuga, Pseudotsuga), Cupressaceae (Cupressus, Thuja, Juniperus), and Taxodiaceae (Taxodium, Sequoia, Sequoiadendron)..

Montgomery County, Texas. February (most seed had shattered from the woody ovulatecone).

4. Seed in a cone- Two views of a seed in the ovulate cone of loblolly cone. A seed of loblolly pine was shown without a marker in the first slide whereas the base of a fasicle of loblolly pine marked one seed in the second slide slide.The brown, parchment-resembling wing of this single seed (one of a pair) was cut away to more clearly reveal the dry seed. Most other seeds, including the other one of this cone unit, had shattered (been shed) from this cone.

The cone of conifers in the Pinaceae is a compound woody structure comprised of numerous units on which the seed, with its attendant parts, develops and is borne while developing before being shed. Each woody unit of the ovulate cone is is a primary appendage-- a woody bract-- that is called the ovuliferous scale. This woody scale is the ovule/seed-bearing part of the cone (strobolus). Typically a pair of ovules, each of which develops into a dry seed (complete with a winged part for wind dispersal), form on the adaxial (= upper) surface of each woody ovuliferous scale resulting in formation of two seed scars on this upper surface (in the axil where scale joins the central woody axis of the cone.

Montgomery County, Texas. February.

5. Core and treasure of the cone- Another view of a seed near apex of cone of loblolly pine. Then two views of a pair of loblolly pine seeds on adaxial surface of ovuliferous scale (ie. in axillary area where woody scale attached to central shaft of the cone). In the first of these two photographs the wing on the left seed of the pair was twisted far to the right for better viewing of the wing, but the wing was in from of (covering up) the right seed. In the second photograph the wing of both seeds of this pair had been removed to more clearly reveal the two seeds.

Montgomery County, Texas. February.

6. Future loblolly pines- Unshattered loblolly pine seeds taken from the cones shown above. Some seeds still had their wings attached whereas others were missing these wind-dispersal facilitting organs. Steel measure indicated the size of seed and wings. The two seeds with attached, intact wings were a pair attached on the same woody ovuliferous scale.

Montgomery County, Texas. February.

7. Up-close look- Seeds of loblolly pine were shown at closer distance to present details of seed coat and texture of the fragile woody material making up wings. Pines are examples of seed dispersal by wind, anemochory (= aerochory), in which wings facilitate action of wind as an agent or facilitator of sexual reproduction. Wind also operates as facilitator during pollination.

Montgomery County, Texas. February.

8. Loblolly pine forest— Second (or third) growth, but natural revegetation with an open understory dominated by little bluestem. Associated understory herbs include slender-leaf wood oats (Uniola sessiliflora) plus species ofPaspalum, Panicum, and Sporobolus among grasses plus native legumes like tickclover (Desmodium spp.) and numerous composites. Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81(Loblolly Pine). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as is visible in the next scene. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

9. Going into a loblolly pine pine- Stucture and botanical composition of a second-growth loblolly pine forest showing an herbaceous layer dominated by little bluestem followed by longleaf woodoats then beaked panicgrass with two annual panicgrass species sometimes locally functioning as associates, a tall shrub layer represented by flowering dogwood in full-flower, and a lower shrub layer (in this vegetation) of which yaupon holly was the major species. The two annual panicgrasses were warty panicgrass (Panicum verrucosum) and savanna panicgrass (P. gymnocarpon).

Fire-scourched bark attested to use of prescribed or, at least, convenience burning in a Pineywoods oak-pine forest that was maintained primarily as a loblolly pine stand.

Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

10.Transitory loblolly pine forest range- Loblolly pine forest range at either: 1) late seral stage with loblolly pine maintained in a hardwood (mostly an oak)-pine forest by frequent burning or 2) a mid-stage (more-or-less) of a wood crop in a thin (sparsely or weakly stocked) stand of loblolly pine. Either way there was low stocking of loblolly pine, the tree crop species, and a well-developed, high-yielding (by loblolly pine range standards) herbaceous understorey for grazing livestock and/or wildlife.

This was the same stand of loblolly pine forest vegetation as introduced in the immediately preceding photograph. Dominant grass in this "photo-plot" of that loblolly pine forest range was little bluestem with longleaf woodoats, beaked panicgrass, savanna panicgrass, and warty panicgrass also present.

Foremost tree (slightly to right of a conspicuous pine trunk) was sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua). A young sassafras (Sassafras albidum) with just-beginning-to-open leaves was growing at left margin of photograph. Yaupon of sundry sizes was widespread throughout the woody layers.

11. Growing doghair- In the same understorey as presented in the last two preceding photographs and captions there were some very localized (restricted) areas near mature loblolly pine trees on which there were extremely dense patches of pine seedings. Obviously not all of these seedlings could survive, but it was also obvious that these would develop into proverbial "doghair stands" unless something thinned them out. If natural agents of mortality such as fire and disease did not eliminate some of these woefully overstocked little blessings of Mother Nature then Man the Forester would have to intervene in order to achieve efficient management of forest resources. One such "doghair stand" of loblolly pine seedlings was presented in foreground of this photograph.

Various Panicum species (major ones were listed in the preceding caption) were the major grasses on this "photo-plot".

Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. Leaves on hardwood species (such as one in left foreground) were just emerging from buds. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

12. A crop of poles- Closed canopy stand of loblolly pine with no herbaceous (grazable) understorey and lower woody layers limited to Tolerant flowering dogwood and yaupon. As a wood crop this single-species stand of loblolly pine was approaching (within a few years of) maturity. This plantation stand was an example of industrial foresty. On this commercial forest the wood crop was a monoculture of fast-growing, hybrid loblolly pine.

Such loblolly pine plantations are a form of even-aged silviculture (silvicultural system). This crop will be harvested in a few years by clearcutting, "a regeneration or harvest method that removes essentially all trees in a stand" (Helms, 1998). Harvest will result in release of many species of grasses, grasslike plants, forbs, shrubs, and Intolerant tree species like sweetgum. Several of the grass species such as those presented in preceding slides will persist for a number of years and through mid-sere of secondary plant succession. Tree species like sweetgum and numerous oaks and hickories will persist unless eliminated by application of selective herbicides or reduced by commercial livestock grazing and/or prescribed burning. Combinations of these silvicultural treatments may be used (as shown periodically throughout this chapter). This and preceding slides of loblolly pine forest vegetation illustrated transitory forest range that is typical of forest cropping systems on commercial (industrial) forests throughout much of southeastern North America.

Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, early vernal aspect (time of the dogwood-redbud tours). This was an anthropogenic variant of the following vegetational units. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Biotic community unit of Brown et al. (1998, ps. Oak-Pine Series, 1212.14 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 except that there should have been an Oak-Pine Series, say 123.13, os Southeastern Deciduous and Evergree Forest 123.1.South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004). Another interpretation of this highly human-modified (= non-natural) forest vegetation was FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). The Kuchler designation would still be K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) while the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) would be a man-made forest cover type of Loblolly Pine (SAF81).

Clarification of terms: the following concepts and definitions were provided from The Dictionary of Forestry developed by the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) to assist students in understanding management and production of grazing and/or browsing resources on transitory forest range.

Silvicultural system- a planned series of treatments for tending, harvesting, and re-establishing a stand.

Regeneration method- a cutting procedure by which a new age class is created.

Even-aged regeneration methods regenerate and maintain a stand with a single age class. One even-aged method is clearcutting which is the cutting of essentially all trees, producing a fully exposed microclimate for the development of a new age class (by either natural or artificial re-eatablishment of the next generation, crop, of trees)

13. "Will the real Pineywoods please stand up?"- "You bet, and this is it." In contrast to the loblolly pine plantation introduced in the immediately preceding slide (and several used below to illustrate silvicultural methods) here were two views of the natural oak-hickory-loblolly pine forest vegetation. This was a second-growth forest recovering from the heady days of "cut-and-run" heady logging, but it had the structure (including several layers of vegetation) and species composition of the native mixed hardwood-loblolly pine. Flowering dogwood and lesser cover of redbud hearlded the early days of spring in this sandy land (note road) upland Pineywoods forest. Not exactly a lobolly pine plantation as shown immediately above and farther below. Water oak, accompanied adult and sapling to pole-size loblolly pine. This forest consisted essentially of the species compoisition indicative of the climax vegetation except that following initial frontier, destructive, non-scientific logging; overgrazing (including by free-ranging, mast and root-eating hogs); and underburning (more likely, total fire exclusion) there was only limited herbaceous understorey (mostly of bluestem, panicgrass, and paspalum species along with some sedges and flatsedges)

Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, early vernal aspect (time of the dogwood-redbud tours). FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Biotic community unit of Brown et al. (1998, ps. Oak-Pine Series, 1212.14 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 except that there should have been an Oak-Pine Series, say 123.13, os Southeastern Deciduous and Evergree Forest 123.1.South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

14. Open understory(= permanent forest range) loblolly pine forest- This loblolly forest is growing immediately above the first terrace of the Sabine River. Recurrent fire (note small fire scar on base of first tree on the left) after establishment of loblolly pines maintained an open understory predominately of perennial wiregrass or threeawn species like woolyleaf threeawn (Aristida lanosa), longspike or slimspike threeawn (A. longespica), and purple or arrowfeather threeawn (A. purpurascens) with broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) and splitbeard bluestem (A. ternarius) as associates. Pioneer annual composites like giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) and horseweed (Conyza canadensis= Erigeron canadensis) are also present, but as last year’s weathered-down stalks. Flowering dogwood (which is at peak bloom in this view) dominates the upper shrub layer with yaupon (green shrub beneath the blooming dogwood) as dominant of the lower shrub layer.

Under the current fire regime this is permaent loblolly pine forest range. It stands in contrast to the transitory loblolly pine forest range where there is denser tree stocking combined with discontinued use of prescribed burning to produce pulp wood instead of pine lumber as in the forest seen here. This range forest cover type persist as a result of the disturbance of repeated fire which kept out hardwood tree species like water and white oaks.The fire disturbance also made favorable habitat for old-field pioneer species such as the two weedy composites and annual threeawns like old-field threeawn (Aristida oligantha plus the similar A. desmantha) and churchmouse threeawn (A. dichotoma). The physiogonomy is that of climax Pineywoods but the absence of hardwood trees and the species composition of the herbaceous understory is clearly that of late seral (= subclimax) forest vegetation. It is a textbook example of “pine woods wiregrass range”. Sabine River, Harrison County, Texas. Vernal aspect, March. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), man-modified variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Brown et al. (1998) Oak-Pine Series converted into Pine Series by human management. South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

15. Climax Loblolly Pine-Hardwood-Pinehill Bluestem Pineywoods Forest- Although not old-growth forest, this is a classic composite Pineywoods community with the species composition of the virgin vegetation. Loblolly pine is the major dominant thereby establishing this as the loblolly pine form of the Pineywoods Complex, but water oak is co-dominant while sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is well-represented among the trees. The shrub layer is dominated by wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera). The herbaceous understory is remarkably diverse. Scattered small colonies of the rhizomatous decreaser pinehill bluestem (Andropogon divergens) serve as an indicator of what the climax dominant for this site should be. Other grasses include splitbeard bluestem, low or spreading panicgrass (Panicum rhizomatum), longleaf uniola (Uniola sessiliflora), and Florida paspalum (Paspalum floridanum). Several Carex species are present with considerable cover. The conspicuous graminoid in the immediate foreground is a species of bulrush (Scirpus sp.).

This is a bottomland loblolly pine-hardwood forest on the flood plain of the Sabine River. It is the forest vegetation just below that seen in the previous slide. It is less apt to burn and has a more favorable soil moisture regime than the previous forest range type. Recent and recurrent fire had to have been part of the environment however to maintain this open understory and the fire-adapted grasses. Rather than wiregrass loblolly pine forest range this is the pinehill bluestem-Florida paspalum-low panicum understory. It is produces much higher quality and higher yielding forage. Both the bluestem and wiregrass Pineywoods range types are permanent forest range with a persistent grazable understory.This is climax loblolly pine-oak hardwood forest while the previous plant community was seral loblolly pine forest vegetation. Sabine River bottom, Harrison County, Texas. Vernal aspect, March. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Anthropogenic Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

16. Big Thicket loblolly pine woods- Exterior view of a loblolly pine-water oak subtype or variant of loblolly pine-hardwood cover type shjowing physiogonomy and botanical composition. At this edge (in a forest opening) young water oak, yaupon holly, and various herbaceous species and the layers they comprise provided an unusual composite "Big Picture" perspective of this forest range vegetation. The small oaks (pole-size) at base of pines were water oak. These young trees had not shed their dead leaves and even had a few persistent live leaves. Yaupon or yaupon holly composed almost all of the lower woody layer except for the regenerting oaks. Grasses were bushy and broomsedge bluestems and bentawn plumegrass.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

17. Edge of a loblolly pine-water oak forest- Detail of herbaceous and lower woody layers of the forest-clearing edge shown in the immediately preceding slide. Regenerated water oak saplings and yaupon made up a lower woody layer. Bentawn plumegrass and broomsedge bluestem and bushy beardgrass were the major herbaceous species. Pine seedlings bore witness to regeneration of loblolly pine.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. Designations of this forest range vegetation were given in the preceding caption.

18. Inside with the pines and oaks- Interior of the loblolly pine-water oak forest introduced in the two preceding slides and their captions. American holly (Ilex opaca) was an associate tree species. A few individuals of regenerating American holly and dense yaupon holly made up most of the lower or secondary woody layer. Adequate light on the forest floor at this stage of vegetation development permitted regeneration of pine as well as persistence of an herbaceous understorey consisting of two or three layers. In the interior of this forest community that was more shaded or, same thing, less well-lite than the forest edges shown above, the dominant herbaceous plant was longleaf woodoats (Uniola sessiflora) which "bumped out" the bluestem or beardgrass species and bentawn plumegrass. Other common to locally dominant herbaceous species included cottongrass bulrush, green flatsedge, beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps), redtop panicgrass (P. rigidulum), and brownseed paspalum (Paspalum plicatluum). These herbaceous species grew together on local habitats (microhabitats at about largest spatial scale) within this loblolly pine-water oak-American holly forest community. Most of these were not visible at scale of these two photographs, but they were featured below at scale of both herbaceous layers and individual plants.

In the first of these two slides water oak and loblolly pine were visible as distinctive trees. The largest tree (left-of-center midground) was water oak. In the second of these photographs water oaks were relegated to midground and surrounded by loblolly pines. Yaupon and small saplings of American holly were widespread in the lower woody layer.

19. Up close in the interior- Interior structure and species composition of a Big Thicket Pineywoods second-growth forest dominated by trees of loblolly pine, water oak, and American holly. Yaupon and small saplings of American holly made up bulk of lower woody layer(s). There was no reproduction of loblolly pine in the denser locale of the forest. Neither was there presence of herbaceous species.

Foremost trunk (left foreground) and four pole-size trunks were loblolly pine. Largest tree with straight bole (left midground) was water oak as were the two small saplings still with green leaves growing between the foremost loblolly pine and the large water oak.

20. Loblolly pine-water oak-American holly subtype of Big Thicket Pineywoods- All-in-one shot of an example of this variant of a loblolly pine-hardwood forest cover type with yaupon and regenerating American holly comprising a lower woody layer and a local opening with longleaf woodoats and other herbaceous species. There was also much reproduction of water oak with numerous small saplings that had retained many of their leaves throughout the usually mild winter of the Big Thicket. Longleaf woodoats and local stands of other herbaceous species were also present though widely scattered.

All of the larger trees in midground were water oak except for one loblolly pine. This was an example that the climatic climax of these forest type is oak and not pine. Both cover types of Loblolly Pine (SAF 81) and Loblolly Pine-Hardwood (SAF 82) (Eyre, 1980) are fire types (ie. only under conditions where fire overrides other components of climate) does this forest vegetation have loblolly pine as a dominant or co-dominant species into climax stage.

21. Longleaf woodoats (Uniola sessiflora)- Five plants of longleaf woodoats adorned the floor of a loblolly pine-water oak-American holly variant of the Loblolly Pine-Hardwood forest cover type (SAF 82). Liberty County, Texas. February.

22. In a small clearing- A small clearing provided adequate light for local stands of herbaceous vegetation, woody layers made up of yaupon and regenerated water oak. At edge of clearing the woody shoot of rattan or Alabama supplejack was climbing a young loblolly pine (small pole in right midground).

Species composition of the herbaceous layers was presented in the next slide.

23. Something to graze- Two views of a local stand of herbaceous species in the understorey of the Pineywoods loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest shown and described immediately above. Largest and most common species was cottongrass bulrush followed by green flatsedge, redtop panicgrass, and longleaf woodoats. The latter species more commonly grows by itself as shown above, but it frequently grows in association with other grasses and grasslike plants.

Individual plants of the cottongrass bulrush and green flatsedge introduced in these two photographs were shown in more detail in the succeeding four slides.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.

24. Cottongrass bulrush, wooly-grass bulrush, or wool-grass (Scirpus cyperinus)- This was one of the most common and largest species of grasslike plants in much of the wetter environments of the loblolly pine-hardwood forest cover type in the Big Thicket area of east Texas. Cottongrass bulrush was especially common (and locally dominant) on mesic to wet forest and range sites such as those for loblolly pine and the various forms of "oak flats" or "flatwoods".

The individual plant presented in this and the two slides above the next caption was one of several specimens growing on the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly forest community featured above

Liberty County, Texas. February.

25. Inflorescence of cottongrass bulrush- Two panicles on the same individual plant of cottongrass bulrush introduced in the immediately preceding photograph (one of several such bulrush plants shown in the two photographs preceding that last slide).

More recent taxonomic treatments of the Scirpus species such as that by Diggs et al. (2006) have rearranged many of these once-upon-a-time Scirpus members into such genera as Schoenoplectus, Bolboschoenus, Isolepis, and even Eleocharis! Interestingly, in this bulrush basket upset cottongrass bulrush remained as Scirpus cyperinus (ie. still a true bulrush as it were).

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.

26. Weathered flat- A highly weathered panicle of green flatsedge (Cyperus virens) in the local stand of herbaceous vegetation in the Pineywoods loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest described herein. In the Illustrated Flora of East Texas Diggs et al. (2006) showed and mapped 19 species of flatsedge as occurring in the small Texas county of Liberty. Green flatsedge is one of the more common Cyperus species growing within the Big Thicket of the Texas Pineywoods. Liberty County, Texas. February.

27. Plumes in the pines- Panicles of bentawn plumegrass (Erianthus contortus) growing on the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest featured here. The Illustrated Flora of East Texas (Diggs et al., 2006) put Erianthus in with an expanded sugarcane genus (Saccharum spp.) and renamed bentawn plumegrass S. brevibarbe var. contortum. Diggs et al. (2006) listed and mapped four former Erianthus species as being in the Pineywoods, including Liberty County, Texas (county where these photographs were taken). Correll and Johnston (1979) in Manual of the Vascular Plant of Texas, still the statewide "bible" of plant taxa, listed three Erianthus species for this "neck of the woods".

Erianthus species are some of the largest grasses native to the Pineywoods. E. contortus is probably the most common of these. Liberty County, Texas. February, hard-grain/shatter stage of phenology.

28. Beauty in the little things- Closeups of spikelets in the panicles of bentawn plumegrass shown immediately above. Liberty county, Texas. February, hard grains were shattering rapidly (lucky photographer preserved this lively scene for generations of grassmen).

29. Holly in the stand- Deeper inside the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly stand of flatwoods featured herein (and shown repeatedly above) American holly was becoming the local dominant tree species. Shrub-sized woody plants with persistent green leaves (foreground understorey) included young yaupon, water oak saplings, and American holly saplings and seedlings. Whereas tolerance rating for loblolly pine is Intolerant (Fowells, 1965, p. 366; Wenger, 1984; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol 1, p. 505) and water oak is Intolerant (Fowells, 1965, p. 630; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol. 2, p. 703) , American holly is Very Tolerant which is the same as American beech, sugar maple, and flowering dogwood (Wenger, 1984).

In absence of fire, windthrow, logging, and other disturbances (natural or anthropogenic) American holly (or other Very Tolerant species in the Big Thicket like American beech and southern magnolia) eventually become dominant as development of forest vegetation reaches climax. That phenomenon was shown in this photograph where the only seedlings present were those of American holly.

The largest and foremost trunk (right foreground; smooth bark) was a nice, shaply specimen of American holly. This specific plant was used below to describe its species, including another view of this same bole. The medium-sized liana growing up the American holly was some species of grape (Vitis sp.).

30. "Hollyer" Pineywoods- On one local part of the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly dominated stand shown and described above, American holly was becoming the climax dominant tree species. Saplings of American holly were more common than those of water oak and the only seedlings were those of American holly. There were no saplings (only pole-size trees) of loblolly pine, the tree which clearly dominated the canopy (with water oak as the local associate species) at this subclimax stage. Yaupon, the overall community dominant of a lower woody layer, was common and shared this layer with saplings of water oak and both saplings and seedlings of American holly as was just remarked.

The adult American holly was the same individual whose trunk (with grape vine) was featured in the slide immediately above.

31. Happy holly happenings- Regeneration (from seed) of American holly on floor of a subclimax loblolly pine-water oak forest. A young sapling of American holly represented the future generation of the climax dominant of this Pineywoods forest range. Yaupon holly, an individual of which was behind the featured holly sapling, was the overall dominant of a lower woody layer. American holly, a Very Tolerant tree species, had successfully reproduced even with this competition. The only herbaceous species was longleaf woodoats.

Another photograph of a small American holly sapling was presented below to show details of holly leaves.

The was the same stand of loblolly pine-water oak-American holly-yaupon-longleaf woodoats-bulrush-flatsedge Big Thicket flatwoods forest as featured above. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.

32. Dynasty in the making- This large, symetrical American holly and its progeny (ranging from seedlings to small saplings) were the climax tree species and future dominant of a loblolly pin-water oak-American holly-yaupon holly- longleaf woodoats-bulrush forest range community. American holly is regarded as Very Tolerant (Wenger, 1984) so that in absence of disturbances (eg. repeated forest fires, forest harvests) the Intolerant loblolly pine (Fowells, 1965, p. 366; Wenger, 1984; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol 1, p. 505) and Intolerant water oak (Fowells, 1965, p. 630; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol. 2, p. 703) will be succeeded by American holly. Successful regeneration of holly and absence of reproduction bf loblolly pine was shown in these two photographs. Numerous young plants of yaupon were also present.

Besides showing regeneration of American holly, these two slides provided views of a mature American holly showing crown shape and branching pattern typical of this climax hardwood (angiosperm) species. Note that limbs and branches of the holly extended lower on the crown than did those of surrounding loblolly pine and water oak and that, overall, the crown of the holly was substantially larger and fuller than those of the two current dominants of the subclimax flatwoods forest.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

33. Heir-apparent up close- Trunk of a mature American holly, the hardwood species that was successionally ascending to climax dominance with successful reproduction in shade of the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly Pineywoods forest. Another view of this same trunk was presented above (complete with the same grape vine).

Extent of shading of forest floor was also typical and indicative of a lower-layer forest environment in which only Toleranmt and Very Tolerant species could regenerate.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

34. Tale of trauma with a position to teach- For reason(s) unknow to the photographer this sapling of American holly was leaning to the stage of being nearly "flat".In spite of such posture the young tree was otherwise "alive and well". The first slide of this sapling provided a better composite view than if it had been vertical like it should have been. The second photograph was a view of branches and leaves on this flattened sapling. Spiney margins of holly leaves were presented to rangemen and foresters unfamilar with this species.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

35. Shinny holly leaves against a background of pine straw- Another small sapling (or large seedling) of American holly (Ilex opaca) growing in shade of loblolly pine, water oak, and its parent which was the large, symmetrical adult holly introduced above. Another living bit of evidence as to the Very Tolerant rating of American holly as well as an example of leaves of this species. Leaves of American holly are vriable in shape, but the margins have spines (sometimes limited to the leaf apex) and are usually scalloped. Leaf blades are shiny green "on top" (upper surface) and pale underneath.

This small tree was in the same flatwoods forest stand as shown and described above.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

36. Flowers and fruit at the same time- Branches of Ilex cornuta var. Burfordii with last year's fruit still present as current year's inflorescences are fully open and ready to produce a new crop. The fruit of Ilex species is a drupe which serves as a concentrate foodstuff (Martin et al., 1951, p. 338). In turn this feeding activity undoubtedly accounts for planting many seeds and subsequent establishment of new holly plants.

Burford holly is one of a number of Ilex species grown in North America. It is a native of China, and while this rangeman author detest most woody exotics that have come to contaminate our native flora, this series of photographs of this introduced ornamental were used to show the flowers and fruits of the larger Ilex species. American holly, the forest Ilex of the Texas Piney Woods (and the southeastern forest in general) is the Christmas holly in North America. It is widely planted as a ornamental and shade tree and as a commercial source of Christmas decoration. The beauty and appropriateness of any holly with its shiny evergreen leaves and the blood (as of the Messiah)-red drupes have proven lasting Xmas symbols that speak for themselves.

Henderson County, Texas. February.

37. Holly pollinators- Pollination, and especially animals as agents of polllination, have intrigued botanists (particulariy ecologists). For example, Dr. Edith Clements was a pioneer ecologist with a fondness for pollinators. Insect pollinators were abundant on the female Burford holly featured in this portion of the text. These included the feral European honey bee (Apis mellifera) and paper wasp () which were included in the tradition of Plant Ecology and to provide instruction in the mutualistic relationship of pollination, a synergism essential for human existence.

Henderson County, Texas. February.

38. Holly flowers- Female inflorescences of Burford holly. The pistillate flowers of this dioecious species are borne in units as a cyme. There are four sepals and four white petals per flower. These were visible in this photograph. The floral structure of Ilex species is rather complex (eg. styles are usually absent). Readers were referred to standard taaxonomic treatments such as state or regional floras which for Texas, in this instance, would include Correll and Johnston (1979, p.993) as well as the classic of Bailey (1951, p. 629).

39. American holly in the Texas Piney Woods- Branches of the inntroduced Chinese Burford holly laden with fruit showed how fruitful some Ilex species could be.

Henderson County, Texas. February.

40. Happy holly shots- Photographs showing general details of Ilex fruit and leaves. (I. opaca typically has more pronounced spines--and more of them--on its leaves.) Ilex fruits contain several (up to six or eight hard pits or stones each of which encloses a seed (Correll and Johnston (1979, p.993). Henderson County, Texas. February.

A common associate tree species throughout southern forests and one that pioneers cut-over forest throughout the Southeastern Forest Region is sweet-gum (Liquidambar stryraciflua). It is a weed tree in commercial forests, especially in intensive pine plantation forestry, where it colonizes clearcut forests and is a severe competitor with pine seedlings.

45. Flowers of sweet-gum (Liquidambar stryraciflua)- Sweet-gum is a monecious species with male infloerescences consisting of spherical clusters occurring in an overall raceme-like arrangement (upper structure in this photograph) while female inflorescences consist of solitary globe-shaped clusters at ends of long stems (structures in lower center in photograph). Sweet-gum is in the witch hazel family (Hamamelidaceeae).

Newton County, Arkansas. May.

46. Close-up of monecious flowers of sweet-gum- Clusters of staminate flowers on a racemose inflorescence in center foreground with a pistillate flower cluster in right midground of sweet-gum.

Newton County, Arkansas. May.

47A. Immature fruit of sweet-gum- Details of young fruit of Liquidambar stryraciflua. This fruit type is interpreted as a septicidal capsule, a dry, dehiscent (opening by various structures) fruit that dehisces (opens) through pore-like exits or openings within the septations or partitions of the ripened ovary (Smith, 1977, ps. 65, 66, 307).

Newton County, Arkansas. May.

47B. Mature fruit of sweet-gum- Examples of the two-beaked capsules of sweet-gum after most seeds were shed. The sweet-gum fruit was described by Diggs et al. (1999, p.737) as a "woody globose cluster of two-beaked capsules". These examples were lying on bark of an exposed root of the tree that produced them. Roots of this species commonly protrude above the soil surface. Root protrusion, heavy crops of the semi-woody fruit clusters, and weak wood resulting in frequent branch breakage are features that make sweet-gum a less than ideal shade tree for persnickety people. Picky, picky; sweet-gum grows rapidly and makes fast shade. Sweet-gum leaves produce some of the most brilliant and variously colored foliage of any tree in southern forest. Fruits are hard on bare feet. Damned tenderfoot got no business out here anyway.

Newton County, Arkansas. December.

41. Yaupon or yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria)- Yaupon is one of the most aggressive shrubs in the understorey of the various pine and oak-pine types of the eastern deciduous forest in southeastern North America. It is usually not a dominant shrub in advanced stages of forest succession, but disturbances like logging (and subsequent regeneration methods) shift competitive advantage to this rapidly spreading, evergreen scrub holly allowing it to become a major brush species on regenerating forests and transitory forest ranges. The individual shown here had persisted late into the rotation of a loblolly pine forest.

International Paper Company, Harrison County, Texas. May.

42A. Girls' time- Flowers at peak-bloom stage on a female yaupon. Yaupon is a dioecious species. Details of a female plant in full bloom were presented.

International Paper Company, Harrison County, Texas.April.

42B. Yaupon leader- Leaves and fruits (drupes) of yaupon. Yaupon is dioecious. The drupes are a favored food of numerous species of songbirds and even furbearers like coons. Browse value of yaupon is often rated as good for deer and fair for livestock though some dispute this. Heavy livestock grazing early in the forest rotation is often an effective means of yaupon control. International Paper Company, Harrison County, Texas. January.

43. Longleaf wood oats (Uniola sessiliflora)- This is one of the more common and important grass species in the shortleaf pine and pine-oak forests. It responds quickly with vigorous growth and reproduction to clearcutting and thinning operations in these forest cover types. Red River County, Texas. July.

Most of the herbaceous understorey species in the various eastern deciduous forest cover types are forbs. Forb is a term used by foresters, rangemen, and wildlifers in reference to any herbs (=. herbaceous plants) that are not grasses or grasslike plants. In other words, forb refers to all soft-stemed dicots and to any monocots that have conspicuous petals. Forb is not a precise botanical term , but rather one used by professionals in the natural resource management fields. Range and forest plants are either 1) woody or 2) herbaceous. The woody plants are either trees or shrubs, the distinction between which is not always obvious. The herbaceous species (herbs) are either grasses, grass-like plants, or forbs. (Together these are generally the five "kinds"-- as in categories or groups not species-- of vascular range and forest plants.)

Some of the more common and conspicuous forbs of the eastern deciduous forest communities were included immediately below. All of these were growing in the Springfield Plateau section of the general Ozark Plateau or Ozark Mountains.

44. Loblolly pine flatwoods- Example of the "pure" cover type of loblolly pine (SAF 82) made up this flatwoods forest community in the Big Thicket. Young, second-growth loblolly pines comprised the entire canopy (crown) layer while yaupon made up the lower woody layer and giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) comprised most of the herbaceous layer. Perennial grasses such as longleaf woodoats and grasslike plants like cottongrass bulrush and green flatsedge which were common on adjacent and close proximity forests of loblolly pine-hardwood cover type (SAF 88) were much less dense on this forest range stocked with younger (smaller) trees. On local areas most disturbed by forest harvest activities there were some individuals of broomsedge and bushy beardgrass with fewer plants of longleaf woodoats and even density of bentawn plumegrass. While there were widely scattered water oaks stocking of this species was so slight that this forest was a loblolly pine cover type.

Selective (uneven-aged) harvest had taken place on this forest three or four years earlier. Hence, pioneer establishment of the giant ragweed and subsequent release of yaupon.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 88 (Loblolly Pine). Biotic community in the system of Brown et al. (1998) would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

45. Not sharing much- Stand of young loblolly pine on a flatwoods form of Big Thicket Pineywoods resulted in a nearly exclusionary crop, a single-species stand, with almost complete canopy cover of this shade-intolerant subclimax species. Yaupon had developed into a lower woody layer that was sporadic ranging frrom nearly absent to local heavy cover/dense shoots (as in the second of these two slides). Major grass overall was longleaf woodoats though it was absent from local areas of more extreme disturbance. Broomsedge and bushy bluestem were present (some shoots were visible in these and the preceding photograph) on the more seriously disturbed areas, but their cover and density could be described as "few and far between". Plants of bentawn plumegrass were even more uncommon.

Loblolly pines of about all one size (poles) and evidence of high degree of disturbance of soil surface indicated that the clearcutting method of regeneration had been used in silvicultural treatment. This was more obvious int the second of these two photographs. The largest tree in second photograph (right midground) was a water oak that had been spared in the recent clear-cutting operation because it was of no value for pulp or poles (ie. a trash tree). It presence and that of scattered water oak seedlings indicated that this was a subclimax loblolly pine-hardwood forest cover type (SAF 82) maintained by silviculture as a loblolly pine forest type (SAF 88).

46. Inside the loblolly pine stand- Interior of a single-species stand of young (pole-size) loblolly pine. Yaupon formed a sporadic woody understorey or lower woody (shrub) layer. Otherwise this vegetation was loblolly pine cover type (SAF 82) of an industrial or commercial forest where maximum financial return from the forest resulted from establishment and maintenance of single-species stands (= populations) of loblolly pine. In other words, this was a "rough" form of a loblolly pine planation established by natural regeneration. This form of silviculture (clearcutting method) produced denser stands of loblolly pine with more shade and therefore less herbaceous vegetation, especially less cover and lower density of grasses and grasslike plants, for grazing animals. Larger-size clearings and greater disturbance with more bare soil did, however, create better habitat for pioneer species like giant ragweed and this resulted in superior habitat for some kinds of wildlife like bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus).

Presence of saplings of water oak was proof that this was a loblolly pine-hardwood cover type (SAF 88) maintained as the more "pure" loblolly pine forest type (SAF 82) as an economic forest crop (ie. pine wood was more valuable than that from oak in the current market). This loblolly pine stand was in close proximity to the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly forest displayed and discussed above.

Yaupon was common and formed a lower woody layer. Dwarf palmetto was also present though mostly as isolated plants. There was less longleaf woodoats, broomsedge and bushy bluestem, bentawn plumegrass, cottongrass bulrush, and sedges and flatsedges than on the nearby loblolly pine-hardwood (water oak and American holly) forest. The most common herbaceous plant on this recently harvestly forest was giant ragweed.

Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Classification units of this forest range vegetation were presented in the two immediately preceding photo captions.

47. Loblolly pine-dominated backwater forest- Another form or subtype(s) of loblolly pine forest range (though one with minimal grazing and browsing resources) in the Pineywoods Region is that (those) that develop on land having ponded water for prolonged periods though not for periods of time consistent with those of swamps. In fact, the common name of loblolly comes from the condition known as a loblolly, a term referring to a mudhole or deep mud puddle, which is an ideal edphic condition for this species (Harlow et al., 1979, p. 93).

This is an exterior view of a loblolly pine-dominated forest that developed on a backwater of the San Jacinto River. Hardly visible on disturbed, bare soil in foreground are many pine seedlings indicative of extensive regeneration of the dominant tree species.Bare limbs and branches are those of water oak, overcup or swamp white oak, and black gum (= black tupelo), the associate species. This forest range vegetation would have to be described as a loblolly pine-mixed hardwood-dwarf palmetto forest. It was another form or variant of flatwoods forest.

Montgomergy County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

48. Next crop of the dominant native and a naturalized alien- At the edge (exterior) of the backwater Pineywoods forest introduced immediately above numerous large seedlings of loblolly (midground) illustrated regeneration by sexual reproduction of this conifer that was dominant in this forest range community. Although both loblolly pine and water oak are rated as Intolerant and subclimax (discussed above for a loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest), on this river backwater wetland these two tree species were climax dominants due to natural protection from severe fire and/or as an edaphic climax. Overcup oak and black tupelo were associate species.

The green leaves in background were those of yaupon holly which comprised a lower woody or shrub layer. Dwarf palmetto (none present in this photograph) formed a second shrub lower in height than the yaupon. (These two lower woody layers of vegetation were presented in the immediately succeeding slide.) At local scale there were sapling- and pole size trees of water oak, overcup oak, and blackgum (indicative of regeneration of these hardwood species later than loblolly pine in this sere) that formed a second tree layer. This was not consistent throughout this vegetation.

The large cespitose grass in foreground was a specimen of Vaseygrass (Paspalum urvillei), an introduced or agronomic forage species that is now naturalized throughout the Pineywoods of Texas and Louisiana. Over its much of its naturalized range Vaseygrass is a highly productive, welcome addition to the often sparse herbaceous understorey of the Pineywoods region. Vaseygrass was dealt with in the chapter, Introduced Forages, under Grasslands.

Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

49. Interior of backwater loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods-palmetto flatwoods forest- Inside look at the forest range vegetation introduced in the preceding two photographs. This "photo plot" provided a nearly comprehensive sample of the species composition of Pineywoods pine-hardwoods forest. There was no regeneration of the Intolerant loblolly pine beneath canopy of pine, water oak, overcup oak, and black tupelo in contrast to "doghair" stands of seedlings at edge or exterior of this stand as shown above. Saplings and pole-size trees of water, overcup oak and, to lesser extent, black tupelo were present indicating that these hardwood species had regenerated later than loblolly pine in seral development of this forest vegetation. Younger trees of these woody angiosperms did not form a continuous lower tree layer, but this vegetational strata was frequently present. Dwarf palmetto and yaupon made up two lower shrub layers in this vegetation.

Two saplings in foreground were overcup oak (left) and water oak (right).

Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

50. Structure and species composition of backwater loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods forest- Two views of lower layers of vegetation in a seasonal wetland forest of loblolly pine, water oak, overcup oak, black tupelo, yaupon, and dwarf palmetto. Large trunk was loblolly pine. On-going regeneration of palmetto was obvious from numerous seedlings of this shrub (eg. in front of pine trunk). Herbaceous species were absent from forest floor which was covered with leaves of tree species.

51. Twixt the pines- Among large loblolly pine dwarf or swamp palmetto made up a lower shrub layer (lower than yaupon which constituted another shrub layer) throughout a backwater flatwoods forest. Also below the older (larger) and more scattered pines, water and overcup oak (with occasional black tupelo) formed a discontinuous lower tree layer.

Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. Various units of forest range vegetation were listed in preceding photo captions.

52. Loblolly Pine-Mixed Hardwood Wet Forest- Loblolly pine is the most common and economically important pine in east Texas. It often grows on well-drained soils, but it is also the Pinus species best adapted to wet, even ponded, sites in the Pineywoods. On this regenerated second-growth forest loblolly pine is the dominant species but shares the forest with numerous associated angiosperm species including water oak, swamp chestnut oak, white oak, and sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) in the overstory with an understory limited to a shrub layer of the small American holly (Ilex opaca) and a lower layer of pine seedlings with sedges and rushes. Liberty County, Texas. Vernal aspect, May. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). Forest cover type is best described as SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood), but it has elements of SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998), but in location of their Pine Series. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

53. Loblolly Pine-Oak Hardwood Forest in Texas Pineywoods- On this wet, often ponded, site loblolly pine is co-dominant with numerous hardwood species including cherrybark oak (Quercus falcata var. pagodifolia), water oak, swamp chestnut oak, white oak, water hickory or bitter pecan (Carya aquatica), and sweet gum. The woody understory consist largely of regenerating species of the dominants just listed. Herbs consist of sedges, rushes, and scattered small individuals of the native bamboo (Arundinaria gigantea). Liberty County, Texas. Vernal aspect, May. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). Appears to be a transition or “hybrid” between SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) and SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998), but in region of their Pine series. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

54. White umbrella sedge or white-top sedge (Dichromenta latififolia)- The striking bright corolla of this member of the Cyperaceae has prompted wild flower enthusiasts to regard this grass-like plant as a “wild flower”. It is restricted to wet open habitats as an understory to the more open loblolly pine-hardwood forests forms growing on poorly drained sites like that seen immediately above. Hardin County, Texas. May.

Although loblolly pine is well-adapted to wet soils (as suggested by the designation of "loblolly" in reference to deep mud hole or large mud puddle) is also occupies and even dominates less moist sites. On moist, but well-drained upland habitats throughout the extensive, eastern deciduous forest region loblolly pine frequently grows with various associated species. The Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) explained that for the Loblolly Pine-Hardwood forest cover type (SAF 82) there is a "spectrum of moisture regimes and sites" with hardwood species varying according to these gradients. White oak is one of the more widespread component hardwood species on direr upland sites. Throughout much of the Pineywoods white oak is a major--often dominant--species on various forest cover types including shortleaf pine as well as loblolly pine.

Forests of white oak and shortleaf pine (with associated species) were treated later on in this chapter.

Natural vegetation of an upland (well-drained) forest subtype that was composed of white oak and loblolly pine was presented and described immediately below. This "vegetational sampler" was typical of the interrupted or variously scattered forest communities in the southcentral portion of the Oak-Pine Forest Region in which loblolly pine serves to charactrize this transition from Oak-Hickory Region to the Oak-Pine Region (Braun, 1950, p. 259, 278-279).

Bottomland Loblolly Pine Forests

Some examples of loblolly pine forests that developed on stream bottoms and floodplains were presented in the following section.

55. Upland loblolly pine-white oak forest- Composite view of an upland Pineywoods forest above a small stream in which loblolly pine and white oak were do-dominants of the the canopy layer with progressively lower vegetational layers formed by sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana) as a lower tree layer; yaupon holly as a shrub layer; Walter's greenbriar (Smilax walteri), some species of grape (Vitis sp.), and rattan or Alabama supplejack as multi-layer (ground to canopy) shrubs; and a sparse-barely present herb layer made up mostly of longleaf woodoats. Leavaes of tree and shrub species covered the ground level (soil surface) to such degree as to exclude most herbaceous species, including individuals of longleaf woodoats (generally the dominant herb). The small tree with green-tinged, smooth bark and arching over the stream (lower right corner) and the two two smaller trees on the opposite (left) bank were individuals of sweetbay. A woody shoot of grape was in center foreground. The green zone of vegetation was produced by green leaves of the evergreen yaupon.

Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

56. Up and above a "crick"- Stand of loblolly pine and white oak on an upland site immediately above a small creek in Pineywoods of east Texas. Vertical view of the same forest introduced in the immediately preceding photograph (and from the same-- though closer-in-- vantagepoint) to better show structure and layering of this forest range vegetation. Woody vines of grape and smaller ones of rattan were in foreground. Limb in upper right corner was of sweetbay, the smaller tree species that constituted a lower tree layer of this forest community.

57. Lumberman's view of a loblolly pine-white oak upland forest- Structure and species composition of an upland white oak-loblolly pine form or subtype of loblolly pine-hardwood dominance type. Larger trunks in both photographs are loblolly pine. Ph;otographed immediately following heavy rain shower so bark over some long strip-line areas of pine trunks was darker. Sweetbay formed an interrupted second tree layer. These were present as smaller, shorter trees (large saplings or pole-size: two in front of and to left of foremost pine in first slide; whitish trunk in foreground of second slide). An upper shrub (lower woody) layer comprised of yaupon was not distinct in these slides, but was shown in the six slides of immediately succeeding three sets of slides. Ground surface was covered with mulch or duff layer formed from shed leaves of all species. There was a very sparse understorey made up mostly of Walter's greenbriar that was more shrub than herb. A very sparse, intermittent herbaceous layer was composed mostly of longleaf woodoats (an individual of this species was to immediate left and upslope of the sweetbay in foreground of second slide). There were even more scattered individuals of some unidentifiable Carex species.

58. Ground level view of a lobolly pine-white oak upland forest- Species make-up and layer arrangement of an upland loblolly pine-mixed hardwood forest was shown to good advantage. This forest community was in the unique Big Thicket portion of the Pineywoods and was featured in this segment of discussion devoted to loblolly pine. Loblolly pine is typically a subclimax stage of forest in the vast eastern deciduous forests of North America. Successional status of white oak varies considerably.

59. Shrubs beneath the pine and oak- Yaupon or yaupon holly made up a shrub layer in the upland loblolly pine-white oak dominated (canopy or cover dominance) forest that had developed along a small stream in the Big Thicket portion of Texas' Pineywoods. This specific forest stand was shown and described in detail above and below.

Liberty County, Texas. February. Various classification units of this forest vegetation were presented in photo captions herein.

60. Walk through the upland woods- A series opf three photographs taken from about the same angle presented structure and species composition of vegetation in an loblolly pine-white oak-sweetbay-liana-yaupon- longleaf woodoats upland forest in the Big Thicket portion of the Texas Pineywoods. This "photo stroll" centered on a large white oak (largest tree trunk) near center of photographs. The bark on this old and still alive white oak had sloughed off in patches which were accentuated by a heavy rain moments before this series of photographs was taken.

Smaller, shorter trees were sweetbay which made an interruped lower tree layer.Yaupon formed a shrub layer throughout. A "top-to-bottom" (ground-to-crown canopy) shrub layer consisted of grape, rattan or Alabama supplejack, and Walter's greenbriar. Leaves of all species produced a ground cover layer so thick that there were very few herbaceous species. The most common herb was the perennial grass, longleaf woodoats.

61. Fire-scarred forest veteran- An old white oak on a loblolly pine-white oak dominated upland forest bore testimony to the frequency of past fires. As a general rule, fire in the hardwood-pine cover types of the North American or eastern deciduous forests selects for greater proportions (crown cover, density, dominance, etc.) of pine rather than hardwood species such as the various oaks and hickories. This is most true for the extremely fire-tolerant longleaf pine, but even less fire-tolerant pines like loblolly generally benefit at competitive expense of the angiosperm trees. Furthermore, susceptibility to fire is greater for seedlings, saplings, and small poles than adult hardwood trees. Once hardwoods become established and grow larger they are less susceptible to fire-damage and death.

The ole patriarch of this upland loblolly pine-hardwood forest had obviously been through several surface fires. Past surface fires had burned through the bark of this large white oak which, however, survived quite well as most of its cambium tissue had not been injured. White oak has a variable tolerance response, but is generally rated as Intermediate (in contrast to Intolerance of loblolly pine). White oak is somewhat more tolerant than loblolly pine to drought (Moderate-tolerant vs. Moderate, respectively) while loblolly pine is much more flood tolerant (Moderately vs. Intolerant of white oak) (Wenger, 1984, ps. 2-8). Frequent fire shifts the forest environment in favor of loblolly pine.

Leafy plants at base of the white oak were small individuals of yaupon. Sapling behind and to right of white oak was sweetbay, the major species of the lower tree layer.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

62. Walter's greenbriar, coral or red-bead greenbriar,, or sarsaparilla (Smilax walteri)- One of several Smilax species in the Pineywoods Region. This one generally prefers moist to wet habitats, including sandy soils along streams such as that in the loblolly pine-white oak-sweetbay-yaupon upland forest described here.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

63. Nitty gritty of Walter's greenbriar- Details of leaves and stems of Walter's greenbriar which is only one of various Smilax species in the eastern deciduous forest of North America. This was growing in the understorey of a loblolly pine-white oak-dominated upland forest that developed along a small stream in the Big Thicket.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

64. Outside view of an moist upland forest- Exterior view (first slide) showing physiogonomy and outer structure and an entering"-the-woods" view (second slide) showing outer tructure of a second-growth loblolly pine-overcup oak- sweet pignut hickory forest that developed on an upper terace of the old stream channel of Sabine River in northeast Texas. Current co-dominants of this subclimax forest were loblolly pine and overcup oak (Quercus lyrata), but it was obvious from tree seedling regeneration that the most prolific tree species and the one that was moving inexorably to domiance (or, at very least, tri-dominance) was Carya glabra, sweet pignut (usually only, pignut hickory). (This successional development was shown below.)

There were scattered seedlings of sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) and red maple (Acer rubra) in this forest. What that protended for future species composition of this forest was not known.

Shrubs in this second-growth advanced seral (successional) forest included: roundleaf green-brier (Smilax rotundifolia), American beautyberry (Callidarpa americana), eastern or American hop-hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), American hornbeam or blue beech (Carpinus caroliniana), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), muscatine grape (Vitis rotundifolia), and highbush or squaw huckleberry (sometimes, deerberry or deer huckleberry) (Vaccinium stamineum).

There was essentially no herbaceous cover and nothing even approaaching an herbaceous layer.

The western edge of the Texas Pineywoods was about the most westward extension of the main body of the once vast Eastern Deciduous Forest Region, a complex of varied forms (cover types, forest associations, forest sites, etc.) that once extended from the Atlantic Coast to the TransMississippi West. Only the Texas vegetational areas of the Post Oak Savanna and Cross Timbers and Prairies occur farther to the west and these are, strictly speaking, devoid of a pine (Pinus species) component.

Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June- early estival aspect. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). Forest cover type as described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) was SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). This should be the biotic community unit of Oak-Pine Series 123.13 (which was not given) in Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreem Forest 123.1 of Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland 123 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 38). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

65. Outer look at forest make-up- A stand of second-growth, moist, upland forest that developed on an upper terrace of the former channel of the uper Sabine River in northeast Texas. Loblolly pine was the obvious dole dominant of this local stand. Both American hornbeam or blue beech and eastern hop-hornbeam, the two main (co-dominant) upright shrub species of this forest community grew together in right foreground. There was a seedling of sweetgum to their immediate left. A young (relatively small) plant of muscadine grape was in the lower left corner of this "photo-plot". There were also some seedlings of pignut hickory plus a sizable cover of the nearly-always-there roundleaf green-brier.

66. Three looks at the interior- Deep inside a second-growth loblolly pine-overcup oak-pignut hickory forest that developed on an upper terrace of the old channel of Sabine River. Almost all trees in these three views of a single (the same) forest stand were loblolly pine including the biggest tree trunk (right -center midground in first and second slides; left margin in third slide) and the trunk at left margin in the three slides. Loblolly pine was present as several age/size classes in this stand. The small shrub in immediate front of the biggest loblolly pine was a young (and profusely blooming) American beautyberry. Larger upright shrubs (some resenbled small trees of sapling size) were 1) eastern hop-hornbeam, 2) American hornbeam or blue beech, and 3) flowering dogwood with the former being most abundant (having greater density and cover). The liana or woody vine, roundleaf green-brier was ubiquitous. The left-leaning tree in right margin of all three slides was a sweetgum. Sweetgum and loblolly pioneered the previous clearcut from which this second-growth forest developed, hence their general or rough similarity in size.

Most tree seedlings were those of pingnut hickory, the species with greatest regeneration in this forest. Most of the trees in the backgrounds, which was a deep hollow, of these slides were widely spaced overcup oak with some loblolly pine and southern red oak.

Leaf litter (mostly needles of loblolly pine with some hardwood leaves) that completely covered the soil surface, absence of any herbaceous cover (not to mention lack of an herbaceous layer), and the sparse or sporadic shrub layer were all noticeably pronounced in these three slides. This forest track was home to a large resident herd of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus).

67. Dominant gymnosperm; dominant angiosperm- In the deep interior of a second-growth loblolly pine-overcup oak-pignut hickory forest that developed on an old meander of the upper Sabine River a specimen of loblolly pine, the dominant gymnosperm, (left margin) and an individual of overcup oak, the dominant angiosperm, (right center foreground) along with a seedling of pignut hickory, the future co-dominant angiosperm (to immediate right of the overcup oak), plus a completely leaf-covered soil surface showed to good advantage the composition of this form of the Texas Pineywoods.

There were representative plants of the shrub species, eastern hop-hornbeam and American hornbeam (also called blue beech, musclkewood, or ironwood) in the forest vegetation of these two "photo-plots".

68. Remake on the forest floor- Inside a second-growth loblolly pine-overcup oak-pignut hickory forest that developed on an old meander of the Sabine River there was a completely leaf (mostly pine needles)-covered floor out of which grew numerous seedlings of pignut hickory, the hardwood tree species that was "ascending" the sere so as to be on the path to becoming the co-dominant hardwood tree (with overcup oak). In these two slides (they served as "photo-dendrographs") southern red oak (Quercus falcata) was the local dominant hardwood tree species. Specimens of southern red oak included the trunk in left margin and in left-center midground of the second slide. Thus this upland forest, which was on the western edge of the Texas Pineywoods, had a representative species of both the red oak (subgenus Erythrobalanus) and white oak (subgenus Leucobalanus) as well as a generally shade/competition tolerant (Burns and Honkala, 1990) hickory growing with loblolly pine.

Shrub species "captured" in these two slides included eastern or American hop-hornbeam, American hornbeam (also called blue beech and ironwood), flowering dogwood (eg. right foreground of first sldie), roundleaf green-brier, highbush or squaw huckleberry (Vaccinium stamineum), and American beautyberry.

Herbaceous species were absent from this second-growth, upland loblolly pine-mixed hardwood forest. It was not known if the leaf litter layer on the soil surface had anything to do with the lack of herbaceous species. Likewise, the role (if any) of a high population of resident white-tailed deer on the understorey was unknown.

The loblolly pine-overcup oak-pignut hickory forest vegetation shown in this series of slides represented one of several forest cover types in a management tract that was part of the Texas Pineywoods which, in turn, was at the western edge of the main body of the pre-white man Eastern Deciduous Forest Region that once covered much of the eastern half of North America.

69. A tough, little, hardwood character- The center feature of these two slides was eastern hop-hornbeam, the most abundant shrub species in a second-growth, upland loblolly pine-overcup oak-pignut hickory forest that developed in northeast Texas on the old channel of Sabine River. In the first slide, besides the specimen of eastern or American hop-hornbeam there was the very edge of a southern red oak along the extreme left margin and four or five boles of loblolly pine in the badkground. Much of the forest crown cover in the background was a mix of overcup oak and loblolly pine with lesser cover an density of southern red oak.

The second slide featured two closely spaced-together plants of eastern hop-hornbeam to present the general morphology or habit of this shrub. Other forest species visible in this second slide included American beautyberry, pignut hickory, red maple, and sweetgum most of which were seedlings or small saplings.

The completely leaf litter-covered ground surface was a prominent feature of this upland forest made of comparatively young trees and numerous shrub species. While there were enough plants of the shrub species and tree seedlings, especially pignut hickory, to comprise something of a lower woody layer, there were almost no herbaceous species and certainly nothing even approaching an herbaceous layer in this second-growth forest with its relatively deep leaf layer on the soil surface. What effect, if any, the mulch-like leaf covering of the land surfact had on herbaceous plant species was not known. Leaf cover did not appear to retard--certainly not prevent--tree regeneration.

70. Young hardwoods on an upland- The woody understorey--albeit it quite "spotty" (erradic or interrupted in cover)--ofr ansecond-growth, upland loblolly pine-overcup oak-pignut hickory forest that developed on the old stream channel of the upper Sabine River in northeast Texas. This variant of the general loblolly pine-mixed hardwood (=loblolly pine-oak-hickory) forest cover type was part of the southeast Pineywoods which, itself, was "part and parcel" of the once vast Eastern Deciduous Forest Region or Complex that streatched from the Atlantic Coast across the TransMississippi West of North America.

The first (horizontal) slide served as a synopsis shot of the woody undergrowth that included the shrub species American beautyberry, roundleaf green-brier, eastern or American hop-hornbeam, flowering dogwood, and blue beech (also called variously American hornbeam, ironwood, or musclewood). The "featured attraction" of this first "photo-quadrant", however, was the prolific reproduction of pignut hickory that was conspicuously "gaining ground" and becoming the new co-dominant hardwood tree species (along with overcup oak).

The second (vertical) slide "held" large sapling-sized or small pole-sized loblolly pine (various ages and sizes were present) plus saplings and, mostly, seedlings of green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), red maple, and, as represented by being the "star attraction" in foreground of this shot, pignut hickory. Shrub species present in this second photograph included American beautyberry, eastern hop-hornbeam, and roundleaf green-brier.

The overlarge large leaves on the pignut hickory seedling in "center stage" (and less prominently in foreground of the first slide) were shade leaves, leaves that develop in microhabitats which are primarily shaded (at least a good proportion of the time) and that, in response to this condition of low light intensity, grow to substantially greater dimensions yet with thinner layers of tissue, especially mesophyll. Shade leaves contrast markedly from sun leaves in having much greater size and thinner tissue to capture limited photons of light.

71. Now for Cajun country- Exterior of a "past prime" second-growth stand of loblolly pine in the bottomland of a bayou draining into Little River. This forest tract appeared to be a naturally regenerated forest of loblolly pine the adult trees of which were in later stages of their lives. In fact, numerous of these loblolly pines had died and fallen down (see below). This forest vegetation was either an old loblolly pine plantation or a plantation-like community that for whatever reason had not been harvested when the pines were at their "prime" (mature trees at the peak stage of their life cycle just prior to onset of senescence and eventual death). Now (at time of photographs) almost all trees were either in the senescent stage or dead.

This forest community was obviously at the sublimax stage of a climax loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods forest which is one of the oak-pine cover types recognized by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980, p. 7). The basis of this obvious conclusion was demonstrated below when presenting photographs of tree reproduction in which seedlings of loblolly pine, sweetgum, overcup oak, willow oak, water oak, and red maple grew side-by-side. For now (in these two photographs of the exterior of this subclimax forest) these outside forest views showed physiogonomy of the plant community, maturation of adult pines, and establishment of saplings of the various hardwood species along with those of loblolly pine.

This invasion by hardwoods--along with continuing regeneration of loblolly pine--was beginning or onset of the climax stage of forest vegetation on this sere of a forest site for which a loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods cover was the potential natural vegetation. Unfortunately, there also unnatural invasion by two exotic, weedy hardwood species (angiosperms): 1) Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) and 2) Chinese tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum).

Shrub species included American hornbeam or blue beech, poison ivy, Virginia creeper, and cat green-brier or catbrier (Smilax glauca). There were more grasslike plants, mostly Carex and Cyperus species, than grasses such as Paspalum species. Forbs were limited and consisted mostly of composites, but there was local cover of sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza sericea= L. cuneata).

La Salle Parish, Louisiana. Mid-July; estival aspect. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). This should be the biotic community unit of Oak-Pine Series 123.13 (which was not given) in Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreem Forest 123.1 of Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland 123 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 38). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).

72. Inside a stand of oldsters- Interior of a forest of aged loblolly pine (an abandoned plantation or plantation-like forest stand) that was on a bayou draining into Little River in northcentral Louisiana. Most of these loblolly pines were either senescing (nearing end of their lives; slowly dying) or already dead, including both snags and fallen timber. All adult pines were past optimum harvest age and stage of maturity even for utility poles of saw (lumber) timber. Reason(s) for non-harvest was (were) unknown; not like rational, rural folk to let the timber crop rot in the field.

There was on-going secondary succession in this forest vegetation such that it was progressing to the loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods climax. This was evident from regeneration of both loblolly pine and hardwood species. This was shown at closer camera distance and in greater detailshortly below. for now these two slides showed at farther distance this tree (and shrub) regeneration amid fallen timbers.

The first slide was a more general view that included young hardwoods (mostly seedlings of various ages and sizes) of overcup oak, water oak, willow oak, red maple, and the ever-present sweetgum. Shrubs ranged from natives like blackberry (Rubus spp.), cat green-brier, and poison ivy to dreaded invasive exotics like Chinese privet and Chinese tallow tree. There appeared to be more cover of grasslike plants, especially Carex species, than of grasses such as Paspalum species. Various species of forbs were present with all of these being at pre-bloom phenological stages.

The second slide was at closer camera distance and featured a larger seedling of red maple (center foreground). There was also a lot of sweetgum seedling cover along with that of the three major oak species: overcup, willow, and water oak. Poison ivy contributed quite a bit of foliage cover, but there was also a lot of cover of the dreaded exotic, Chinese privet. There were several plants of Carex species, but these bore no fruit or flowers so this swamp-tromping traveler could not identify them as to species.

73. On the road to climax- Inside a second-growth stand of over-mature loblolly pine (dying, standing dead, and downed trees) with secondary plant (old-field or cut-over forest) succession progressing to the climax loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods forest. There was considerable reproduction of loblolly pine as well as overcup oak, willow oak, water oak, red maple, and the ubiquitous sweetgum showing clearly the trajectory of community development on the sere of this bottomland forest site. This forest was on a bayou that emptied into Little River in northcentral Louisiana.

The first slide included young trees of sweetgum generally under seven feet in height (large seedling or small sapling was a distinction left up to the individual viewer) in a local patch in the foreground. The shoots of these sweetgums were individual, genetically distinct (genotypic) trees and not a clonal thicket or colony. There were also a few small trees of willow oak and water oak in this small group. Sadly, there was also much cover of the horridly invasive exotic, Chinese privet.

The second of these two slides was a closer-up view in the interior of this senescing stand of loblolly pine that again featured sweetgum seedlings or small saplings (as in lower left foreground), which was the most proflically reproducing hardwood. There were also trees of about the same size (age?) of overcup, water, and willow oaks along with a few red maple. There were trailing shoots of cat green-brier, poison ivy, and Virginia creeper in the vegetation seen in the second image. Herbaceous species were mostly Carex and Cyprus species plus a few forb members of the Compositae. The few grasses were primarily Panicum and Paspalum species that could not be positively identified in their current vegetative (non-flowering/non-fruitbearing) phenological states.

Dead, fallen pine crowns and branches out of crowns were strewn willy nilly on the floor of this old loblolly pine plantation or plantion-resenbling stand. It was not known why these "lumber-ripe" trees were not harvested. Nor was it known if this loblolly pine stand resulted from natural or artificial regeneration (ie. whether naturally seeded or planted back to pine seedlings such as bare-root planting stock).

74. The next crop and then some- Interior of a second-growth stand of loblolly pine many to most trees of which were in the terminal stages of their life cycles (senescing, dying, and dead with many individuals of the latter age class either snags or fallen timber). It was not known whether this had been a commercial plantation (either of natural or artificial regeneration) or an isolated stand that grew back on this stream bottomland forest site after clearcutting. Logs lying on the ground were loblolly pine snags that had naturally fallen. Reason(s) for non-harvest of the wood crop was unknown to this author, but individual trees (not the forest as a whole) were definitely old-growth specimens. hThis forest range community developed on a bayou that drained into Little River in northcentral Louisiana.

Aside from natural death and decay of individual loblolly pines, the other "big story" in this tract of forest was natural reproduction of all tree species in this forest range community. This natural regeneration (sexual reproduction) included the following tree species: loblolly pine, sweetgum, overcup oak, willow oak, water oak, and red maple. This phenomenon of natural regeneration by sexual union of male and female gametes and seed production was shown in greater detail in the immediatley following three-slide/caption set.

There were also herbaceous species in this relatively open-canopy forest including grasslike plants (Carex, Cyperus spp.), grasses (mostly Panicum, Paspalum spp.), and forbs (primarily composites). Plants of these species were still in their vegetative (= pre-bloom stages of phenology) and thus were not identified by your first-time-here, traveling photographer.

75. Cradle call- Floor of a second-growth stand of senescing, dying, and dead loblolly pine on a bottomland forest site that drained into Little River in northcentral Louisiana. Sunlight readily reached this forest floor due to the open or "broken" or "irregular" forest canopy of mature loblolly pine that were dying and having their crowns shed (ie. crash to the ground). The result was a prolific crop of seedlings of all the tree species (regardless of their shade/compeitition tolerance) growing in the bottom layer of forest vegetation. Tree species with seedlings included loblolly pine, sweetgum, red maple, over cup oak, willow oak, and water oak. Other plant species in one of more of these three "photo-quadrants" included poison oak, cat green-brier, Virginia creeper, blackberry, Desmodium spp., Carex spp., and the introduced forage species, sericea lespedeza.

Downed timber of loblolly pine, ranging from smaller branches to entire, full-sized tree trunks, were strewn on the ground and visible in all three slides.

With abundant sexual reproduction of all tree and shrub species (and all of the same approximate size; hence, of similar age) in this forest community, it was apparent that the final stage of secondary plant succcession on this sere would be a loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods (probably mostly of oak species) climax forest. It was also apparent--concurrent and consistent with this terminal species composition--that the current forest community dominated solely by loblolly pine was subclimax. For this bottomland forest site any stand dominated solely by loblolly pine would be at some seral stage and not climax. In the forest vegetation presented here--with an obvious successional trajectory to a terminal forest that will be a mixture of all of the seedling species now present--that seral stage was subclimax. Loblolly pine is not the only or the exclusive dominant tree species for the potential natural forest that will ultimately develop on the sere featured here. At climax, loblolly pine shares the sylvan limelight with the hardwood species.

If loblolly pine was to be the only wood crop species produced (irrespective of whether or not that crop was harvested) on this bottomland forest site, foresters would have to employ forest practices to reduce the composition (density, cover, etc.) of hardwood tree species. In such case, the hardwoods would be weed trees or brush such forestry practices would include hardwood control measures. Such brush control practices could include biological control by grazing/browsing animals (eg. "trargeted grazing" by cattle, goats, etc.), chemical control (herbicide application), or pyric control (prescribed fire). Examples of hardwood tree reduction by prescribed burning was featured below (after first showing and describing development of oak species in this currently featured, senescing loblolly pine stand.)

76. What can happen without prescribed burning- A relatively large, adult water oak with a sapling of willow oak growing beside it in the interior of a bottomland second-growth forest dominated by loblolly pines that were at end of their lives (senescent, dead, or dying stages of their life cycle) such that, being unharvested, many trees were at the point of breaking off leaving a combination of snags and downed tops. In other words, these adult loblolly pine trees were old-growth individuals even though trees of other species in this forest were still immature (most were "baby" or, at best, "adolescent" trees). The oak species, which invade (become established) later in plant succession on the sere, were "behind" loblolly pine in achieving prominence (becoming dominant or associate species) in the forest vegetation.

This is why, in this forest community, trees of the oak species were younger and smaller than adult and senescing (dying or, even, dead) trees of loblolly pine (ie. in their life cycles oaks were of age/size classes behind or less mature those of the already adult loblolly pine) . In this forest there was sexual regeneration of all tree species (loblolly pine, sweetgum, overcup oak, willow oak, water oak, red maple) as well as of shrubs (including American hornbeam or blue beech, poison ivy, cat green-brier, Virginia creeper). There were also herbaceous plants: grasslike plant, grasses, and forbs in that relative order. Ultimately the plant community of this forest tract was--barring human or natural disturbance--going to be the lobolly pine-mixed hardwood climax with one or more shrub layers and an herbaceous layer.

Non-harvest of "prime" or "lumber-ripe" loblolly pine was for reasons/conditions unknown to this author, but the lesson of Forest Ecology, especially for forest succession and role of fire in forest vegetation was that for this bottomland forest site, for which the potential natural vegetation was a loblolly pine-mixed hardwood climax, a forest stand made up overwhelmingly of old-growth loblolly pine was subclimax. Again, the forest climax (the terminal forest stage for this sere) would be loblolly pine and various oak species along with such other hardwood (angiosperm) species as sweetgum and red maple. Establishment of the various oak species along with loblolly pine, sweetgum and red maple--as shown in this and the immediately preceding three-slide/caption set--was successional "ground truth" as to species composition of the "final forest" on the sere of this bottomland forest site.

Intervention by disturbances or catastrophes as, for instance, by hurricanes, clearcutting, or fire (either of human or lightening ignition) would deflect forest succession and set the developing forest vegetation back to a lower seral stage. Man-set fires, especially prescribed fires, are a routine forestry practice that favors the larger loblolly pines (pines are either humanly planted or "volunteer" on properly conducted clearcuts or on cut-over, "cut-and-run" logged-over, forests) over the later-appearing oaks. Obviously, silvicultural clearcutting favors the colonizing or pioneering loblolly pine over the "later-on-the-scene", more successionally advanced oaks. The same competitive advantage persists when prescribed surface fires are conducted in forest tracts with older, larger loblolly pine and later-appearing, smaller oaks. That was the subject of the two immediately following slide/caption sets.

This forest ecosystem had developed on a bayou that drained into Little River in northcentral Louisiana.

77. What happens with prescribed burning- A second-growth forest of loblolly pine in the Kisatchie Cuesta or Scarp, the eastern end of the Bordas-Oakville-Catahoula-Kisatchie Escarpment, (Feeenman, 1938, ps. 102,110-111) in central Louisiana. This plantation or plantation-like stand of loblolly pine had been routinely burnt by prescription. Prescription burning had reduced proportion of hardwood cover, density, etc. in this stand. Blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica) was the major hardwood tree species, and blackjack oak was of such density and cover as to be the associate tree species in this forest vegetation.

There were several shrub species in this forest range community, the dominant of which was winged sumac (Rhus copallina= R. copallinum). Other prominent shrub species were cat green-brier and various grapes (Vitis sp.). There was also a heavy cover of wild yam (Dioscorea villosa), a viney and tuberous forb, which was the dominant herbaceous species.

Kisatchie National Forest, Rapides Parish, Louisiana. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) or, by more intensive management, SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). This should be the biotic community unit of Oak-Pine Series 123.13 (which was not given) in Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreem Forest 123.1 of Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland 123 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 38). South Central Plains- 35c Pleistocene Fluvial Terraces (Daigle et al., 2006).

78. With prescribed fire- Another second-growth forest stand of loblolly pine in the Kisatchie Cuesta or Scarp in central Louisiana that had been routinely burned by prescription. This forest range community was in another tract or management unit than the tract of loblolly pine presented and described in the immmediately preceding two-slide/caption set.The prescribed fire treatment on the forest tract shown here was also done primarily to control hardwood trees in this loblolly pine forest that was either originally a pine plantation or, at least, a plantation-like stand. Blackjack oak was the major hardwood and the associate and, locally, the co-dominant tree species in this tract of forest vegetation. Examples of blackjack oak in this "phot-dendrogram" were the small, resprout or stump shoots (reembling bush-like plants) to immediate left and right of the big loblolly pine in the center foreground.

This big pine trunk had blackened, fire-burnished bark attesting to a history of prescribed burning. The two bush-sized set of blackjack shoots on either side of this fire-burnt trunk presented even more dramatic evidence (a much greater impact) of prescribed burning because these were resprouts or coppice shoots from blackjack oaks that had been repeatedly topkilled by recurrent fire.

Winged sumac was the dominant shrub in this loblolly pine-dominated forest community. The sumacs (Rhus spp.) are some of the most fire-adapted shrubs in eastern North America. Other major shrubs were cat green-brier and wild grape, the same woody vine species as in the loblolly pine forest presented and described immediately above. Wild yam was not present (at least not to any appreciable degree of cover) in the forest tract shown here. The bunchgrass immediately in front of the big loblolly pine with its fire-blackened bark was poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata). There was considerably less cover of an unidentified Carex species in this forest range community.

FIRE CAN BE A GREAT FRIEND OF SOUTHERN PINE FORESTS.

Upland Loblolly Pine Forests

Examples of the of upland loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods forest were provided by two tracts of second-growth forest and a young loblolly pine plantation at the western edge of the Southern Pine Hills portion of the East Gulf Coastal Plain (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 77-78). These examples illustrated or demonstrated the overlap of the Oak-Pine Region (Braun, 1950, ps. 271-273, 277-278) and the Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region (Braun, 1950, ps. 281-289 passim) of the Eastern Deciduous Forest Complex.

The Southern Pine Hills, which is one of several belts in the Coastal Plain, extends to western Florida implying that the examples of forest range vegetation presented here were representative of a large geographic area. In fact, various forms of the loblolly-oak-hickory forest form comprise Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) forest cover type 82, Loblolly Pine-Oak, which extends as far east and north as Delaware and Maryland and west to east Texas and southern Arkansas (Eyre, 1980, p. 61). This great region holds much of southern industrial forestry for which loblolly pine is the basis.

Daigle, J.J., Griffith, G.E., Omernik, J.M., Faulkner, P.L., McCulloh, R.P., Handley, L.R., Smith, L.M., and Chapman, S.S., 2006, Ecoregions of Louisiana (color poster with map, descriptive text, summary tables, and photographs): Reston, Virginia, U.S. Geological Survey (map scale 1:1,000,000).

A better-drained upland loblolly pine forest site- The following series of slides/caption sets was of a less mesic upland loblolly pine-dominated forest in the Southern Pine Hills portion of the Eastern Gulf Coastal Plains. White oak (Quercus alba) and black oak (Q. velutina) were the principal oak species (they were generally associate but rarely dominants to co-dominants with loblolly pine). Water oak (Q. nigra) was also present, but at lower cover and density. Mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa) was a general associate hardwood tree species. Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) was absent. Eastern hop-hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) was the dominant shrub species.

Following this short section that was devoted to a better-drained forest site on which white oak was the major oak species, the next short section was devoted to a less well-drained forest site on which willow oak (Q. phellos) followed by water oak (Q. nigra) had replaced white oak as well as having substantially high relative cover of sweetgum.

79. Outside and outer edge- Overall exterior view showing physiography (first slide) and closer-up view showing structure and composition (second slide) of a second-growth, upland loblolly pine-mixed oak-mockernut hickory forest. This loblolly-mixed hardwoods forest had the species composition of the climax vegetation including an extremely well-developed understorey consisting of 1) an upper shrub layer, 2) a lower shrub layer, and 3) an herbaceous layer dominated by native grasses. Species composition of this forest range community was described in slide/caption units below, but quickly listed the major hardwood tree species of this climax composition forest were white oak, black oak, mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa), and water oak while eastern or American hop-hornbeam was the major shrub and narrowleaf woodoats (Uniola sessifolia) was the dominant herbaceous species. A few--very few (as in less than the proverbial "half-dozen"--seedelings of red maple (Acer rubrum) were encountered.

This upland forest had developed in southwestern Mississippi in the extreme western Southern Pine Hills, one of several belts in the East Gulf portion of the Coastal Plain physiographic province, that extends from theTensas Basin of the Mississippi River eastward to western Florida (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 77-78).

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July; estival aspect. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest & Woodland 123, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest 123.1, Pine Series 123.12 , but this climax vegetation should be a biotic community unit of Oak-Pine Series 123.13 (which was not given) in Brown et al., 1998, p. 37). Mississippi Valley Loess Plains- Southern Rolling Plains ecoregion 74c (Daigle t al., 2006).

80. Forest foliage in general- A second-growth, but climax composition loblolly pine-mixed hardwood forest that developed on an upland forest site at the extreme western edge of Southern Pine Hills, one of several belts in the East Gulf portion of the Coastal Plain (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 77-78) in southwestern Mississippi. These exteriors views featured boughs with dense clusters of needles along with trunks of loblolly pine (both slides) and the understorey, the upper shrub layer of which was dominated by eastern hop-hornbeam (second slide) an herbaceous layer dominated by narrowleaf woodoats. The herbaceous layer also included scattered plants of vaseygrass (Paspalum urvillei), broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), and Elliott's bluestem (A. elliottii= A. gyrans). A few of the larger white oaks in this forest were in backgrounds of the slides.

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July; estival aspect. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest & Woodland 123, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest 123.1, Pine Series 123.12 , but this climax vegetation should be a biotic community unit of Oak-Pine Series 123.13 (which was not given)in Brown et al., 1998, p. 37). Mississippi Valley Loess Plains- Southern Rolling Plains ecoregion 74c (Daigle t al., 2006).

81. Hopping to it in the hills- Two example plants (specimens) of eastern or American hop-hornbeam dominating the upper shrub layer of a second-growth (climax species composition), upland loblolly pine-mixed oak-mockernut hickory forest in the Southern Pine Hills of southwest Mississippi. The herbaceous layer was poorly developed in the forest vegetation seen in these two slides.

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July; estival aspect. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest & Woodland 123, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest 123.1, Pine Series 123.12 , but this climax vegetation should be a biotic community unit of Oak-Pine Series 123.13 (which was not given) Brown et al., 1998, p. 37). Mississippi Valley Loess Plains- Southern Rolling Plains ecoregion 74c (Daigle t al., 2006).

82. Hop for a closer look- A shrub-sized eastern hop-hornbeam in the middle woody layer (specifically, the upper shrub layer) of the second-growth loblolly pine-mixed oak-mockernut hickory upland forest forest being described in this section. Eastern hop-hornbeam is typically an understorey tree or, perhaps more frequently, a larger, mid-storey shrub.

Eastern hop-hornbeam was rated as being in the highest shade/competition tolerance group designated as Highly Tolerant (Wenger, 1984, ps. 2-3). Eastern hop-hornbeam is generally regarded as being "second-to-none" as a shade-adapted hardwood species. This species is generally a small to mid-sized tree that seldom exceeds heights above 30 feet, although sometimes it is as much as 60 feet tall (Sargent, 1933, p. 203).

Eastern hop-hornbeam has traditionally been either a) included in the Corylaceae (hazel family) family along with birch (Betula spp.) as shown, for instance, by Fernald (1950, ps. 530-531) and Steyermark (1963, ps. 523-526) or b) placed in the birch family (Betulaceae) as, for example, by Sargent (1933, p. 202-204) and Diggs et al. (1999, p. 440). In the latter case, eastern hop-hornbeam was placed in the Coryleae tribe by Smith (1977, p. 98) which would generally place the Ostrya genus in the Coryloideae subfamily.

Note: eastern hop-hornbeam has a species range extending from the Canadian Maritime provinces westward to the Great Plains and is commonly a major species throughout much of the once-vast Eastern Deciduous Forest Region. Other examples of eastern hornbeam were included in Range Types of North America such as in the chapter, Southern and Central Forests I.

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July; estival aspect.

83. Renewal through regeneration- Understorey of a second-growth, climax-composition, loblolly pine-mixed oak-mockernut hickory forest that developed on an upland forest site in the western border of the Southern Pine Hills portion of the East Gulf Coastal Plain in southwest Mississippi. Trunks of sub-adult (sapling-size) to young adult loblolly pine were visible in both of these two slides. The feature story of these photographs was the prolific sexual reproduction of major hardwood tree species. Seedlings and small saplings of white oak, mockernut nickory, water oak, and black oak (and an almost inconsequental number of red maple) as well as a large shrubs of eastern hop-hornbeam made up parts of both the 1) upper woody (shrub) and 2) lower woody (shrub) layers of this Pineywoods woods.

Plants of other shrub species included poison ivy and the dreadfully invasive Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), this latter in lower left corner of first slide. Interesting, the author did not encounter any green-brier of grape species.

There were also a few scattered plants of Elliott's bluestem (eg. lower left of immediate foreground), but narrowleaf woodoats was the dominant herbaceous species (eg. right background first slide).

The Southern Pine Hills section of the Coastal Plain physiographic province streatches from the Mississippi River Valley eastward to western Florida (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 77-78). Thus, the forest community presented here was typical or representative of loblolly pine-mixed hardwood forest vegetation that extended for upwards of five hundred miles across much of southeastern North America.

84. Narrow and woodsy underneath- In front of trunk of young loblolly pine (and another pine to its immediate right) were several plants of narrowleaf woodoats (first slide), the dominant grass of the herbaceous layer of the understorey of a loblolly pin-mixed oak-mockernut hickory second-growth, upland forest in southwestern Mississippi. A short distance away from the first scene a larger population of narrowleaf woodoats (left and center foreground of second slide) was flourishing to immediate left of a loblolly pine seedling or small sapling while a young adult white oak (in left rear), three saplings of mockernut hickory, and a number of boles of young loblolly pine (in center and right background) finished out this "photo-dendrogram" of this climax-composition forest range vegetation. There were a few plants of broomsedge bluestem scattered in with the population of narrowleaf woodoats in the background of the first slide.

There were some plants of sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza sericea= L. cuneata) growing beside (and perhaps providing some nitrogen for) the narrowleaf woodoats in foreground of the second slide. Sericea lespedeza is an introduced, agronomic forage species that has naturalized over much of North America, including a good portion of the Deep South.

85. All the wood's layers- Interior of a second-growth, upland loblolly pine-mixed oak-mockernut hickory just east of the Mississippi River Valley (Tensas Basin) at the extreme edge of the Southern Pine Hills, one of several belts in the East Gulf Coastal Plain in southwest Mississippi. These three slides were a "photographic double-nested plot" being a three photograph sequence of progressively closer camera distances. The largest tree (trunk) was a white oak (in left background , first two slides; left midground, third slide). Two of the saplings to right and one sapling to left of this wihte oak were mockernut hickories, the second largest trunk was a white oak (downslope to right of the big white oak in second slide), while rest of thee saplings were loblolly pine. Some of the trees in the background were black oak and water oak.

The herbaceous understorey featured in foreground of these three "photo-plots" was dominated by narrowleaf woodoats with a few plants of broomsedge bluestem also present and, in foreground of the second and third slide, sericea lespedeza (an introduced, forage legume tha naturalized over a large area of North America).

86. A look inside- In the interior of a second-growth, upland loblolly pine-mixed oak-mockernut hickory forest that had the species composition and early structure of the climax forest). The two big trunks (left margin and left-center midground). Most of the lower angiosperm leaves were thos of eastern hop-hornbeam, the dominant shrub species of this loblolly pine-mixed oak-mockernut hickory forest. There were a number of shade leaves of seedling mockernut hickory (leaves in center-right margin). Shade leaves are those that, as implied by the adjective "shade", develop in more shaded (or less sunlite) local environments (microsites) and, in response to the necessity of capturing more of the dim light, grow unusually large yet are also thinner in their thickness of mesophyll. There were also a few larger seedlings of white oak, water oak, and black oak.

Overall, white oak was the major associate tree species, but this shifted back-and-forth locally in this climax-composition upland forest. Prominence of white oak attested to the better-drained, less mesic habitat of this forest site as, for example, compared to a more mesic forest site with concave topographic features that was presented in the next section (starting two slide/caption sets below).

87. Scoping reproduction- Three "telescoping" (progressively closer camera distance) views of the multiple layers of a second-growth (though climax species composition), upland loblolly pine-mixed oak-mockernut hickory forest in the far-western Southern Pine Hills portion (of the East Gulf section) Coastal Plain physiographic province. In the first two slides there were seedlings and a small sapling of loblolly pine along with seedlings of white oak, black oak, mockernut hickory, and, with essentially or nearly meaningless cover, red maple. There was considerable cover of eastern or American hop-hornbeam, the dominant shrub of this forest.

The third "photo-quadrant" had seedlings of mockernut hickory (left-center foreground by trukn of loblolly pine), white oak (right foreground), and red maple along with eastern hop-hornbeam (background) as well as the trunk of loblolly pine (left margin).

All larger trees in these three views were loblolly pines.

In the local habitat (microsite) shown in these three slides there was complete coverage of the soil surface with leaves of tree species (both hardwoods and loblolly pine) along with those of eastern hop-hornbeam.

This forest tract was in southwest Mississippi just east of the Tensas basin of the Mississippi River Valley. The Southern Pine Hills belt of the East Gulf Coastal Plain extends eastward almost 500 miles to western Florida. This loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods forest was representative of millions of acres of forest vegetation in southeastern North America.

A less-drained (or more mesic) upland loblolly pine forest site-The following series of slide/caption sets was of a more mesic (less well-drained) second-growth, upland loblolly pine-dominated forest in the Southern Pine Hills portion of the Eastern Gulf Coastal Plains. This was in southwest Mississippi just east of the Tensas Basin portion of the Mississippi River Valley. In this forest stand, that developed in a depression or small valley, willow oak and, with notably less cover, water oak were associates to, in some local areas (microsites), co-dominants with loblolly pine. Willow oak (primarily) and water oak (secondarily) replaced white oak that was the associate to local co-dominant on the better drained upland forest site covered in the short section immediately above.

Furthermore, sweetgum was also common and an associate species in this depression forest as contrasted to absence (or near-absence) of sweetgum from the better drained upland site. Also present, though at much lower cover and density, was blackgum opr black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) which was also absent from the better-drained forest site. Presence of black tupelo or blackgum only in the upland depression forest was even more ecologically indicative of differences between these two upland forest sites.

The forest canopy of this upland depression loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods forests was more dense with less sunlight reaching the forest floor. As such, there was less of an herbaceous understorey, In fact, the herbaceous layer was largely restricted to small or local openings (small-scale natural "clearings") in which the dominant herbaceous species was Elliott's bluestem (rather than narrowleaf woodoats which was the herbaceous dominant in the better-drained upland site with white oak as the principal oak).

88. Another tract; a little different forest- Physiogonomy and external structure and composition of a second-growth loblolly pine-willow oak-water oak-sweetgum forest in southwest Mississippi in the Southern Pine Hills of the East Gulf portion of the Coastal Plains physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 77-78). This particular forest site was in a moist depression and had the co-dominant willow and water oaks (with greater soil-moisture requirements) in contrast to the previously described better-drained upland site with the less-mesic co-dominant white oak. The most obvious difference between these two forest sites (forest cover sub-types) was the presence of sweetgum as an associate species with more mesic soils versus absence of sweetgum from the drier upland forest site. Likewise, there was some cover of blackgum or black tupelo on this depression environment that had greater soil moisture. Both of these forest sites (and their representative forest tracts) were within about four miles of each other.

Another striking difference bwtween the two forest sites was the relatively greater canopy cover and the commensurately less-developed (more limited) understorey of this depression topography forest. Most of the understorey cover was that of young trees (seedlings and saplings) of willow oak, water oak, and mockernut hickory with some cover of loblolly pine. Presence of young mockernut hickory in the forest understorey was a characteristic common to the plant community on both of these forest sites. Red maple was preent in roughly comparable cover and density on both forest sites. Another difference, however, was much greater cover of cat green-brier (Smilax glauca) on this more mesic site whereas it was almost non-existent on the better-drained upland forest tract.

In the few natural openings and at edge of this more-mesic, depression forest there was much more cover of Elliott's bluestem and substantially less cover of narrowleaf woodoats. Bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum), an introduced agronomic grass, was present on this moister, depression topography yet absent from the drier forest site/tract.

89. A mesic mixture- Structure and plant species composition of the understorey of a second-growth loblolly pine-willow oak-water oak mesic upland forest that developed in a depression in the Southern Pine Hills (southwest Mississippi) of the Coastal Plains physiographic province (East Gulf portion of this province). These two slides were a nested "photo-plot" in which the second slide was a sub-plot of the general or overall plot shown in the first slide (second photograph "nested" within the first photograph).

In the first slide (general plot) the center pole and sapling to its right in center midground and the tree in left margin of the foreground were all young loblolly pines. There were numerous seedlings of willow oak, water oak, mockernut hickory, and loblolly pine that made up most of the lower woody plant cover in the foreground. In between this lower woody, the seedling, layer there was a middle woody layer that was mostly sweetgum plus less cover of blackgum or black tupelo. The second slide featured seedlings of willow oak, water oak, mockernut hickory, and loblolly pine plus some taller seedlings of black tupelo (=blackgum) and, very infrequently, red maple along with cat green-brier. Willow oak and water oak are both in the red or black oak group of Quercus designated as subgenus, Erythrobalanus.

This second-growth forest was the subclimax stage of the regional loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods climax forest community. Based on current species composition of the vegetation, the apparent "trajectory" of forest development on this sere indicated that the terminal stage would be an approximate "four-way" mixture of loblolly pine, willow oak, water oak, and mockernut hickory forest with some sweetgum and blackgum (= black tupelo) persisting into the ultimate forest community. Red maple would be expected to be infrequent in the climax forest. Cat green-brier would extend from the soil up to crowns of adult trees. Herbaceous cover would be limited to natural openings or isolated patches where forest canopy cover was more limited (ie. an interrupted or sporadic herbaceous layer). The herbaceaous layer was treated in the next two-slide/caption unit.

90. Herbage at the edge- At the perimeter (and in natural openings in the interior) of a second-growth loblolly pine-willow oak-water oak-mockernut hickory upland forest there were seedlings of loblolly pine, willow oak, water oak, and mockernut hickory (the ultimate four major species of the projected climax forest) plus somewhat taller (and much sparser in cover) seedlings of blackgum or black tupelo and a few seedlings of red maple, but there was far more herbaceous cover, the major species of which was Elliott's bluestem (Andropogon elliottii= A. gyrans). There were also a few plants of narrowleaf woodoats (Uniola sessifolia), but Elliott's bluestem was the dominant herbaceous species of this forest edge and of the sporadic or interupted understorey in the forest interior. There was also some cover of cat green-brier, an important liana (woody vine) species in this more mesic forest site.

In summary,willow oak and water oak were more abundant (had more cover, greater density)--and the potential co-dominants with loblolly pine--in this second-growth upland forest that developed on a depression (resulting in greater soil moisture) in contrast to dominance by white oak on a less-mesic upland forest site. Mockernut hickory had approximately the same cover on both forest sites (one forest tract of each site), but the more-moist, depression forest was the only one that had cover of weeetgum and blackbum (= water tupelo) or any substantive cover of cat green-brier. The principal herbaceous species (ie. the dominant of the interrupted herbaceous layer) on this forest site of greater soil moisture was Elliott's bluestem whereas narrowleaf woodoats was the herbaceous dominant on the drier upland site where Elliott's bluestem was less common. Both grass species occurred on both forest sites, the difference being in relative cover between these two grasses. Grass cover was much greater in the drier forest with narrowleaf woodoats growing throughout the understorey. On the more mesic, depression forest site grass cover was limited to the forest edge and in small, local, (and apparently natural) openings in the forest interior.

Both of these two upland forest sites (one tract of each site) were in southwest Mississippi in the Southern Pine Hills of the East Gulf portion of the Coastal Plains physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 77-78). Both tracts had second-growth forests with an apparent climax community dominated by loblolly pine and the co-dominant to associate oak species being either wihte oak (drier site) or willow oak and wqter oak (more mesic site). Mockernut hickory was a major hardwood species on both forest tracts. These two forest tracts (sites) were within about four miles of each other.

91. Characteristic bough- Lower limb with needles of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) at edge of a second-growth upland loblolly pine-dominated forest in southwest Mississippi in the Southern Pine Hills of the East Gulf portion of the Coastal Plains physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 77-78). Willow oak, water oak, and mockernut hickory were the major hardwood species growing in association with loblolly pine.

The terminal portion--including terminal or apical--of one twig on this lower branch were the subject of the next slide/caption set.

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July.

92. Tip of a twig- Apex or terminal portion of loblolly pine leader (first slide) and the terminal bud and its needles of loblolly pine (second slide) in a a second-growth upland loblolly pine-dominated forest in southwest Mississippi the Southern Pine Hills of the Coastal Plains physiographic province (the East Gulf portion thereof). The structures presented here were on one of the twigs on the lower branch of loblolly pine shown in the immediately preceding slide.

Needles (the leaves of conifers) of loblolly pine generally survive about three years they are shed (Sargent, 1933, p. 16).

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July.

93. Three of us- Two fascicles with three needles in each fasicle of loblolly pine. A fascicle was given this classic definition by Sargent (1933, p. 894): "A close cluster of leaves or flowers" and with the adjective fascicled meaning "arranged in fascicles". As there are generally three needles (term for the leaves of coniferous species) per fascicle in loblolly pine it is one of the so-called "three-needle pines".

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July.

94. In the forest congregation- A seedling of water oak (Quercus nigra) at the perimeter of a second-growth, upland loblolly pine-willow oak-water oak-mockernut hickory forest in southwest Mississippi in a unit of the East Gulf portion of the Coastal Plain physiographic province known as the Southern Pine Hills (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 77-78).

No organism lives forever so persistence of any species in any community depends upon successful reproduction (sexual, as in this instance, or asexual). That is what Darwin (1859) meant by "fitness". The "most fit" organism (individual genotype or species) is the one that is most successful in leaving its progeny so as to perpetuate the gene, genotype, species, population, etc. The is not necessarily the organism that leaves the most offspring, but rather the one that leaves the most progeny as appropriate for its habitat. This is also known as natural selection.

This concept applies to human institutions as well as to organisms. The most successful institution is the one that provides for "recruitment" to its ranks over the longest period of time. The Christian church may well rank as the most successful in that regard. The key is continual induction of new members of the congregation, denomination, or the one true church to replace the old ones that die off at the end of their life cycle. Sunday school is the operative level for this in the church. In other words, the most successful way to maintain the congregation or denomination is to breed, to produce, its own new members (ie. grow your own). The little water oak seedling seen above is one of the newer memebers of its wooded congregation. Welcome to church, little guy.

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July; seedling stage of life cycle.

95. Where there was more water- Leaves of water oak on a young gtree growing in a second-growth, upland loblolly pine-willow oak-water oak-mockernut hickory forest in a depression topography land form in the Southern Pine Hills section of the East Gulf Coastal Plain in southwest Mississippi. Water oak was the main oak species growing with willow oak in this forest. There was more available soil water on this forest site than on a drier upland forest in which white oak was the dominant oak species.

Water oak is in the red or black oak group (subgenus Erythrobalanus).

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July.

96. Boughed on the ground- An unusually low-growing limb of a young willow oak that grew in a second-growth loblolly pine-willow oak-water oak-mockernut forest in a depressional area of the Southern Pine Hills in the Coastal Plain physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 77-78) in southwest Mississippi. Leaves on this bough or leader (term for branch as used by foresters and rangemen) were presented in the next two-slide/caption set.

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July.

97. On oak not willow- Leaves of willow oak growing on the low-lying bough introduced in the immediately preceding slide. These structures were on a young willow oak gowing in a loblolly pine-dominated second-growth forest ina depression land form at the western edge of the Southern Pine Hills of the Coastal Plain in southwest Mississippi.

Willow oak is a red or black oak (member of the white oak group; subgenus Erythrobalanus).

Both willow oak and water oak are more-water requiring (more mesic) Quercus species.

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July.

98. A different bluestem for most of us- An overall view of a plant (first slide) and a view of the basal portion of the same plant of Elliott's bluestem (Andropogon elliottii= A. gyrans) in the in the Southern Pine Hills of the East Gulf portion of the Coastal Plains physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 77-78). This specimen was growing at the edge of a second-growth, upland loblolly pine-willow oak-water oak-mockernut hickory forest in southwest Mississippi.

For whatever reasons, there are precious few references for forest plants, especially forest range plants, for this part of the country. An author is left to fend pretty much on his own. Grelen and Hughes (1984, p. 4) is one of the few good references in this regard. The drooping or descending lower leaves of Elliott's bluestem were very distinctive (at least in this "part of the woods"). The author could not find any remnants of the balloon-like infloresences left on plants of Elliott's bluestem in this immediate area.

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July.

99. A bluestem new to most of us- Young plant of Elliott's bluestem in a small natural opening inside a second-growth, upland loblolly pine-willow oak-water oak-mockernut hickory forest in southwest Mississippi. Elliott's bluestem is typically not abundant enough to provide much forage other than in local areas.

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July.

100. Starting the next crop- A young (probably only five to sevens year-old) plantation of loblolly pine on an upland forest site in the Southern Pine Hills belt of the Coastal Plain physiographic province (East Gulf section) in southwestern Mississippi. This plantation was straight across a state highway from the second-growth, upland loblolly pine-mixed oak-mockernut hickory (the climax composition) forest shown and described in a short section above. The first of these two slides presented the outer edge whereas the second slide showed the interior of this industrial hybrid-loblolly pine plantation.

This young regenerating (seral) forest vegetation had been invaded by sweetgum and blackgum or black tupelo, two of the most common pioneering tree species of the loblolly pine and loblolly pine-hardwoods cover types (Society of American Foresters [Eyre, 1980] numbers 81 and 82, respectively). Two other hardwoods (but of distant ranking relative to the two preceding tree species) that had colonized this plantation forest were black oak (Quercus velutina) and winged elm (Ulmus alata). Other abundant, woody plants growing on the largely transitory range of this "baby" plantation forest included smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), cat green-brier (Smilax glauca), tree groundsel or sea-myrtle (Baccharis halimifolia), American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana), and muscatine grape (Vitis rotundifolia). The forb that was most common (greatest distribution, density, and cover) was mare's tail or horseweed (Conyz canadensis), a giant, annual composite that is probably the single most important herbaceous pioneer species on cut-over forests and old fields throughout southeastern and midwestern (interior) North America.

The first of these two slides featured more of the herbaceous layer of this plantation forest. Important herbaceous species--besides the aforenamed mare's tail or horseweed--included broomsedge bluestem, the dominant monocotyledon; hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis); narrowleaf woodoats; and vaseygrass (Paspalum notatum). The tall scraggly tree in the background and highlighted against the sky in this first slide was blackgum or black tupelo. Seedlings of sweetgum, winged elm, and smooth sumac were also visible (perhaps not discernible) in midground (edge of the plantation) in this first slide.

The second slide had a robust small sapling of black oak at left margin. There were some plants of both muscatine grape and cat green-brier in foreground of this second slide. There was sizable cover of sweetgum as, an example, in right foreground along with cover of blackgum or black tupelo throughout and some winged elm. Most grass cover was of broomsedge bluestem and hairy crabgrass with some of vaseygrass and common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactyledon).

Last year's dead shoots of broomsedge were visible in both of these slides.

101. Early development-Two "photo-plots" of seral vegetation on an industrial forest of young loblolly pine in the Southern Pine Hills belt in southwestern Mississippi. This loblolly pine plantation (hybird pines appered to be roughly five to seven years of age) was just east of the Mississippi River Valley (Tensas Basin) in the the East Gulf section of the Coastal Plain physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938, ps. ps. 77-78). This commercial plantation was on the opposite side of a state highway directly across from the better-drained, upland loblolly pine-mixed oak-mockernut hickory second-growth (and climax composition) forest.

The first (vertical) photograph showed two sweetgum saplings that were slightly taller than the loblolly pines and some shorter black tupelo with cat green-brier, and (featured prominently in the foreground) heavy cover of broomsedge bluestem with both last year's dead herbage (necromass) as well as current year's herbage (biomass).

The second slide presented a more general (more comprehensive) view of the seral plant community of this loblolly pine plantation forest range. There was less herbaceous cover and biomass in this forest range vegetation than in that of the forest community presented in the first slide. Another difference was that most of this herbage was of vaseygrass and hairy crabgrass versus most being broomsedge bluestem as shown in the first slide. There was also cover of common bermudagrass and less of bahiagrass. Woody hardwoods (angiosperm trees and shrubs) seemed to engulf the small loblolly pine saplings (or large seedlings) in this "photographic forest plot". These hardwood species included sweetgum, black tupelo, black oak, smooth sumac, cat green-brier, American beautyberry, groundsel tree or sea-myrtle, and muscatine grape. The most abundant forb was the giant annual composite, mare'stail or horseweed, probably the most common, annual forb on recently cut-over forests and old crop fields.

Chapman, S.S, Griffith, G.E., Omernik, J.M., Comstock, J.A., Beiser, M.C., and Johnson, D., 2004, Ecoregions of Mississippi, (color poster with map, descriptive text, summary tables, and photographs): Reston, Virginia, U.S. Geological Survey (map scale 1:1,000,000).

Management of Loblolly Pine Forests

Presented below were a number of examples of Forestry practices (silvicultural, harvesting, grazing, etc) in loblolly pine forests. These examples were not necessarily arranged in any order of management practices, but more as to geographic location and, frankly, in an opportunistic fashion based more on region and photographic excursions by the author than by silvicultural method (which may be beside the point as it is usually by even-aged management, that is clearcutting) rotation period, and other aspects of management or ecological variables.

The first example of overall loblolly pine management in the plantation method was on property of Weyerhaeuser Company, Sevier County, Arkansas. The following slide/caption sets illustrated Weyerhaeuser plantation management beginning with a recent clearcut plantation and ending with two plantations of different ages. This example began with the following notes.

Notes- loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) culture under intensive plantation systems
The following notes regarding loblolly pine production were graciously provided to R.E. Rosiere by Mr. Steve Galliher, forester (silviculture), Weyerhaeuser, DeQueen, Arkansas in a two hour telephone conversation on Monday, 18 August, 2014.

In most Weyerhaeuser operations in Arkansas (presumedly Oklahoma also) loblolly pine is grown for saw timber to be processes into two-by (2x4, 2x6, 2x8 sometimes up to 2x12 inches; not full-cut of course) construction lumber.
Pines are thinned at about 15 years of age with thinned wood used for pulp; remaining/released pines are then harvested at roughly 20-25 up to 30 years post planting with saw logs processed into construction lumber and tops used for pulp wood.
Harvest is by feller/buncher (various brands as can be seen on internet), No chain saws are allowed because this tool is source of most accidents. The only chainsaw permitted in the woods at harvest is a 12 inch blade chain saw used to knock off remaining branches and tops (ie “bumping the logs”). Logs are delivered to a landing/loading location near harvest site by a grapple skidder. From here logs are loaded on trucks. To this extent a traditional landing for logs is not needed (ie. it is more “portable” than a regular truck or rail landing).
Final stocking rate for loblolly pine in plantations is 600 to 700 trees per acre. Bare root-stock pine seedlings are planted by hand (machine planting is seldom used because it is twice as costly as hand planting) using 12-inch long-handled shovels usually manufactured by Wolverine®. All heavy steel including handles. Shovels wear out quite fast and must be kept with 12 inch blade to get proper planting depth. Use foreign labor (but you can imagine they have “green cards” with this company; no wetbacks) and one man can plant up to 2000 to 3000 seedlings daily. Containerized seedlings are seldom used as it is too time-consuming, hence expensive, except for new germ plasm. The seedlings are planted in rough rows 14 to 15 feet apart. Seedling planting rates are kept as low as possible to reduce numbers of 15-year-old pines that have to be thinned (a very expensive operation).
Simultaneous with placement of seedling in hole is tamping of soil around top of pine at soil surface/air interface to prevent formation of an air pocket near or around roots. This is why a spade blade is superior to a hoedad which is worst tree-planting implement in rocky soils of the Ouachita Mountains Region. Dibble bars are superior to hoedads, but inferior to heavy duty tree-planting shovels.
From time sedlings are dug from nursery until they are planted is two weeks maximum. Roots are sprayed with protectant to reduce root drying and, then, dying from exposure. Seedlings cannot be planted if temperature is very much below freezing point. Bare root-stock seedlings are kept in coolers until they are put into holding bags on planters’ backs. This permits lower planting rates and, thus, thinning cost.
Germ plasm: second-generation genetically selected “pure” Pinus taeda. Planting stock is single-cross loblolly pine with sacs placed over female cones much like in production of hybrid corn. Thus these are “hybrid loblolly pines” in that sense of the term. Seedling nursery is near Magnolia, Arkansas though some are produced somewhere in eastern South Carolina.
Pine seedlings are dug then promptly planted when roughly nine months old. In this region (southwestern Arkansas/southeastern Oklahoma) they are planted over the span from December through January, sometimes into February.
Site preparation consist of several operations. Following pine harvest, stumps and seedlings of hardwood tree species are allowed to grow to appropriate stage and then are treated with herbicide. The industry standard for chemical weed tree control in loblolly pine plantations in this area is the BASF product Chopper® (Imazapyr) using 28 to 40 ounces of this 26.7% active ingredient product per acre. Chopper® will have some minor adverse impact (browning symptoms) on pines whereas the related BASF herbicide, Arsenal® does not affect conifers but apparently is less effective on weedy hardwood tree species. If there are weedy conifers glyphosate can be used in spot (individual plant) treatment. Imazapyr is typically applied from mid-July to September.
The major weedy hardwoods are: sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua); oak (Quercus) species, which vary site-to-site; and winged elm (Ulmus alata). Secondary weedy hardwoods are hickory (Carya) species, such as mockernut hickory (C. tomentosa), and red maple (Acer rubra). In instances where there are problems with larger saplings of these species, individual trees may be controlled by injection or frilling application of appropriate herbicide.
Soil treatment consist of a shear-and-bed procedure. This is usually done with a single-shank ripper or implement like the Savanna plow®. This ripper is pulled behind a crawler. Examples can be viewed on the interned where it will be seen that there are two opposite colters behind the plow that produce a bed on the soil surface. Eagle® till, something that Rosiere did not get details of, is also used to some extent.
Apparently the time frame for site preparation (brush control and soil surface treatment) is such that there is roughly a two-year interim between logging and planting of the next pine crop.
Hunting is one of the commercial multiple (secondary) uses of loblolly pine lands. Hunting privileges on loblolly pine plantations are leased to Arkansas Game & Fish which sells permits and limits hunters as needed. Hunting options in Oklahoma are leased to Oklahoma Wildlife Commission which also requires permits for entry for purposes of hunting.
Cattle grazing was formerly another secondary commercial use of loblolly pine plantations. Unfortunately, the same ultimate situation developed on these private forest lands as on public forest ranges. There were too many bad actors among so-called cattlemen. While the majority may have been good, responsible citizens there were too many cattle owners for whom greed, laziness, and manipulation were more important than beef production and proper resource use. There were some cases in which a permittee (grazing permit-holder) having a lease for 50 cows ran a 100. Some overgrazed and then fed hay on the pine field when the range feed ran out. This and related management practices resulted in concentration of cattle such that livestock trampled pine seedlings and younger established pines. Pines were subject to trampling up to about three or four years of age. Given easier walking on a more nearly level plane cattle walked down the soil beds on which pines were planted. This resulted in damage to or killing of pines by cattle trampling.

Weyerhaeuser announced in 2005 that it was phasing out cattle-grazing leases (permits) effective four or five years later. This gave cattlegrowers sufficient time to sell off excess head or make other arrangements for pasture. Sad commentary on the state of beef cattle production and resource management at a time and age when ignorance can no longer be pleaded.

102. Sparse stubble after a recent shave- Views of a new clearcut loblolly pine plantation early in the first warm-growing season following harvest of the wood crop. Most of the plants were annual pioneer composite species, especially blue or Florida wild lettuce (Lactuca florida), Canada wild lettuce or tall wild lettuce (L. canadensis), and common horseweed or mare'stail (Conyza canadensis). There were some seedlings of sweetgum, the most common or widespread pioneer hardwood in this forest region (there were two sweetgum seedlings in foreground of the second slide). There were also a few newly germinated seedlings (tiny little things) of loblolly pine.

Stumps and slash remaining after harvest were visible in these views. The soil surface varied from extremely "clean" to piles of slash three foot tall and sections of logs eight to ten inches across (first slide presented this to good advantage). There was certainly adequate slash (wood crop residue) to protect the soil against erosion; in fact, more than enough scrap wood (larger wood aftermath).

Following wood harvest this land had been sprayed with imazapyr, (RS)-2-(4-Methyl-5-oxo-4-propan-2-yl-1H-imidazol-2-yl) pyridine-3-carboxylic acid, a non-selective, systemic herbicide for control of vascular plants, period. Imazapyr "messes with" protein synthesis and DNA synthesis (specifically, it disrupts plant growth by preventing systhesis of the enzyme, acetolactate synthase). The mode of action is inhibition of amino acid synthesis. Imazapyr is in the Imidazolinone hrbicide family.

Obviously a few plant had escaped--at least so far--imazapyr treatment. More to the point is the fact that plants on clearcuts regenerate quickly so that there is considerable plant cover other than that of loblolly pine on plantations of that wood crop species. Next slides please...

Weyerhaeuser Company, Sevier County, Arkansas. Early July; early estival aspect. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest & Woodland 123, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest 123.1, Pine Series 123.12 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Cretaceous Dissected Uplands ecoregion 35d (Woods et al., 2004).

103. Entering a plantation- Three views at the edge of a young loblolly pine plantation in the plains between the Ouachita Mountain Range and the Red River Valley in southwest Arkansas. This was a six-year old plantation. These three views were progressively closer toward interior of the plantation. The foreground and midground of the first slide had climax grass species, including big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), the dominant tallgrass species of the native shortleaf pine forests of this region, and broomsedge bluestem (A. virginicus), an early, weedy seral, perennial grass, as well as various forbs ranging from the climax, perennial yuccaleaf eryngo or rattlesnake master (Eryngium yuccifolium) to the weedy, annul doveweed or prairietea (Croton monanthogynus). In addition to loblolly pine there were small saplings of sweetgum and blackgum (black tupelo) in the background of the first slide.

The second slide was a closer-in view of part of the first slide (= a "sub photo-plot" of the first or "overall photo-plot" with a lot of doveweed or prairie tea present along with broomsedge bluestem. Small saplings and large seedlings of loblolly pine, sweetgum, black tupelo were in the midground of this second slide. There were also adult-sized plants of winged sumac (Rhus copallina= R. copallinum) and Ameican beautyberry (Callicarpa americana).

The third slide featured small saplings of loblolly pine surrounded by such herbaceous species as broomsedge bluestem, common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactyledon), and tall boneset (Eupatorium altissimum) plus the shrub, sea myrtle or tree groundsel (Baccharis halimifolia), along with saplings of black tupelo, and, of course, the ever-present sweetgum.

There were loblolly pines of various sizes throughout this plantation which was unequivocal proof that some pines had naturally regenerated from seed (in addition to those that had been hand-plantedas bare root nursery stock.

104. Into the young pines- Inside a six-year old plantation of loblolly pine on the plains of southwest Arkansas between the Ouachita Mountain Range and the Red river. These two slides were a pair of "nested photot-plots" with the second (vertical) slide being a "sub-plot" of the first (horizontal) photograph (overall "photo-plot"). The "sub-plot" centered on a large plant of sea-myrtle or tree groundsel and a small sweetgum sapling to its front-left which were in the center midground of the first slide. Other woody plant species included a few blackgum (black tupelo), blackberry, American beatutyberry, and cat green-brier (Smilax rotundifolia). The conspicuous herbaceous cover in foregeround of both slides was predominantly broomsedge bluestem (a native, perennial, invader species) with rosette velvet panicgrass (Panicum scoparium), which is an increaser to, sometimes, a decreaser species for this forest range site. Velvet rosette panicgrass was associate to local co-dominant herbaceous species with broomsedge bluestem.

In addition to these species, there were plants of mare'stail or common horseweed, tall boneset, and an unidentified goldernrod (Solidago sp.) in the larger-spatial scale view of the first photograph.

Whereas velvet rosette panicgrass is palatable and can be valuable forage, especially for cattle, broomsedge bluestem is little used by most livestock except when new growth (in early spring, sometimes, in winter) is acceptable to grazing animals

Industrial loblolly pine plantations like the one described here provide a textbook example of transitory forest range: forest range, the grazable/browsable understorey of a forest community, that is not permanent (not providing herbage or browse indefinitely) but that, instead, is of temporary or periodic duration (shorter useful time of available range animal feed) only until the forest canopy shades the forest floor; range resources are available until the tree-dominated community transitions into a closed-canopy forest that has little or no understorey (limited forest structure beneath tree crowns). The range component of the forest is replaced by a bare zone as the forest develops via secondary plant succession into a climax or, at least, a higher or later (successionally more advanced) seral stage. Transitory forest range is the opposite of permanent forest range.

Community succession involves changes in both plant and animal species (as well as soil development). Biotic succession is not just plant succession. Likewise, succession is not just about development of the biological community; it involves the processes of soil development (and changes in the soil biotic component) along with progression of the biotic (living) part. This is of great practical importance in wildlife production.The loblolly pine plantation at the successional stage seen here was "prime" habitat for rabbits, deer, and grassland birds. As the plantation transitions (develops; succeeds, proceeds) to a closed-canopy forest this vegetation will cease to be valuable for deer, rabbits, and gallinaceous birds, but the forest community will became better habitat for squirrels, woodpeckers, and other tree-nesting bird species.

105. Woods, hard and soft- Two close-in views of the interior of a six-year old loblolly pine plantation on the plains between the Ouachita Mountains and Red River in southwest Arkansas. Besides the hand-planted, six-year-old, single-cross hybrid loblolly pines there were saplings of sweetgum an black tupelo (blackgum); shrubs of sea-myrtle or tree groundesl, American beautyberry, and blackberry; native, perennial grasses, especially broomsedge bluestem and rosette velvet panicgrass; and forbs, the most conspicuous of which was tall boneset and an unidentified goldenrod (Solidago sp.).

At seral stages such as the one shown here, loblolly pine plantations offer the optimum of livestock forage/browse as well as wildlife habitat (which, of course, includes the forage/browse crop as well as cover). Loblolly pine plantation forests are a classic example of transitory forest range: there will eventually cease to be a grazable/browsable understorey if tree stocking (tree density) is gret enough to result in a closed canopy forest At that stage of forest development tree crowns will effectively exclude most sunlight--hence, plant life--from the lower forest levels (ie. a completely shaded forest floor resulting in death and exclusion of lower-layer plants).

106. At edge of two plantations- A six-year-old loblolly pine plantation (foreground) in front of an older (roughly fifteen-year-old) plantation of loblolly pine in southwest Arkansas on the plains between the Ouachita Mountains and Red River Valley. Forest vegetation in foreground included American beautyberry (lower left corner), sea myrtle or tree groundsel (to right and rear of American beautyberry), last year's bleached shoots of broomsedge bluestem center to right foreground), and two six-year-old loblolly pines (right midground). Blackberry canes and cat green-brier, though present, were not discernable in this photograph. All distinguishable plant cover in the background was that of loblolly pine.

It was explained above (two immediately preceding captions) that plantation forest vegetation at this (and similar) stage(s) of seral development (plant succession) is the optimum range for livestock and most wildlife species. None of the range plants in this "photo-plot" were particularily palatable to livestock or browsing wildlife. Broomsedge bluestem is one of the least palatable, least acceptable, grasses native to the southcentral region of North America, but Leithead et al. (1976, p. 37) remarked that "broomsedge bluestem furnishes considerable grazingt during spring and early summer" in this region. Yes, animals will consume broomsedge bluestem if, as on this plantation range, it is the main herbaceous available. Almost all of these native plants (loblolly pine is native to this regionmostly on lowland habitats) were unpalatable species or those palatable only at immature phenological stages (eg. early spring blackberry primacanes) and at certain seasons.

107. Two plantations; two ages- Interior of a six-year-old loblolly pine plantation (foreground) and perimeter, outer edge, of an older (about fifteen-year-old) loblolly pine plantation (background) in the plains between the Ouachita Mountains and Red River in southwest Arkansas. These were "nested photo-plots" with the second slide being a nearer-in view of vegetation (two larger loblolly pines in front of sea-myrtle or tree groundsel) in the right midground of the first slide. In both of these views almost all of the herbaceous plant cover was of velvet rosette panicgrass and, secondly, broomsedge bluestem some plants of tall boneset with trailing briers (shoots) of some dewberry (Rubus) species.

Loblolly pine plantations are the textbook example of transitory forest range in the Southeastern Region of North America. Transitory forest range (in contrast to permanent forest range) was defined and described above for this pine plantation and in context of forest succession. By the time loblolly pines reach the size and degree of crown development in the older plantation seen here, there is relatively little understorey vegetation that is available for grazing or browsing (ie. there is too much shade for survival of understorey plants so there are no longer any lower vegetational layers of this now closed-canopy plantation forest). The range resource exist only over a transient part of successional progression (vegetational development) on this forest sere.

Range (woody and herbaceous layers or components) is part of this forest only at certain seral stages as this young plantation forest transends (develops) into a monoculture of planted, single-cross hybrid loblolly pines At pine harvest-stage there are invading hardwood tree species (mostly oaks and hickories), but these will be felled along with harvest of loblolly pines. Following pine harvest, the plantation becomes, in effect (and only for a brief period of the forest rotation) an old crop field on which the crop was wood fiber. Then the "tree field" will be replanted back to hybrid loblolly pine for the next tree crop. For a transitory period of time in the forest rotation there will be a grazable/browsable portion--transitory forest range--as a secondary crop accompanying the young tree crop.

108. Patches in the hills- Edge of a clearcut (foreground) and parts of three clearcuts (in distant background) of hybrid loblolly pine (in essence, a plantation of loblolly pine with some natural regeneration of hardwood tree species) in the Kiamichi Mountains, a sub- mountain range within the overall Ouachita Mountains, in southeast Oklahoma. The climax forest (= potential natural vegetation) for this forest region (including most forest sites) was forest dominated by shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata).

In this and the next two slide/caption sets, the forest vegetation was in the early second-growing season post-harvest of loblolly pine. Most plant cover on this clearcut lololly pine plantation was of of various hardwood tree species. This hradwood tree cover consisted of 1)seedlings that emerged post-harvest and 2) second-growing season stump sprouts and small saplings that were recovering from injury incurred during harvest. The major hardwood tree species included sweetgum, blackgum or black tupelo, red maple, winged elm, mockernut hickory, and black oak.

Shrub and herbaceous species were given in slide/caption sets below.

LeFlore County, Oklahoma. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest & Woodland 123, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest 123.1, Pine Series 123.12 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 38). Ouachita Mountains- Fourche Mountains ecoregion 36d (Woods et al., 2005).

109. Recovering patches- Seral forest community on a clearcut loblolly pine plantation in the second growing following harvest. in in the Kiamichi Mountains, a sub-unit within the overall Ouachita Mountains, in southeast Oklahoma. Overall most of the cover was of either 1) seedlings that emerged following harvest or 2) stump shoots (stump sprouts or sucker sprouts= resprouts) and saplings (of various sizes) of hardwood tree species that were recovering from injuries inflicted by harvest of loblolly pines. The major species hardwood tree included sweetgum, blackgum or black tupelo, mockernut hickory, winged elm, red maple, and black oak.

Shrub species included winged sumac (Rhus copallina), blackberry (Rubus spp.), cat green-brier (Vitis rotundifolia), poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans= Rhus radicans= R. toxicodendron). Prominent herbaceous species included hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), rosette panicgrasses (Dichanthium subgenus of Panicum spp.), Canada wild lettuce or tall wild lettuce (Lactuca canadensis), blue or Florida lettuce (L. florida), common horseweed or mare'stail (Conyza canadensis), tall boneset (Eupatorium altissimum), common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), and smooth ox-eye (Heliopsis helianthoides).

110. Recovery in progress- Seral vegetation on a a clearcut loblolly pine plantation in the warm-growing season following harvest. This was the same clearcut that was introduced above in the Kiamichi Mountains, a smaller range within the overall Ouachita Mountains, in southeast Oklahoma. In the first of these two slides the taller sapling (foreground) was a black oak as was sapling in uppr left corner. Most of the taller small saplings in background were black tupelo or blackgum. There were also seedlings of black oak and sweetgum (midground) and older saplings behind, most of which, again, were blackgum, that were not felled in last year's loblolly pine harvest (background). There was a lot of cover of common ragweed, horseweed or mare'stail, and hairy crabgrass in foreground that portrayed the considerable cover and high density of herbaceous species in this second-growing season's post harvest vegetation. There was also appreciable cover of muscadine grape as in right midground.

In the second slide, the taller seedlings in foreground were winged elm (left) and mockernut hickory (right). A red maple was to left rear of the winged elm. Seedlings and saplings of sweetgum and blackgum thate were predominant in other "photo-plots" were not noticable in this second slide. Shrub species in this second slide included winged sumac, blackberry, cat green-brier, muscadine grape, and poison ivy. Important (at least locally) herbaceous species in this "photo-quadrant" included hairy crabgrass, rosette panicgrasses, common horseweed or mare'stail, Canada wild lettuce or tall wild lettuce, blue or Florida lettuce, tall boneset, smooth ox-eye. and sericea lespedeza.

The author could not find any seedlings of loblolly pine in this man-modified forest (recall that the native pine for this forest region is shortleaf pine not loblolly pine). Loblolly pines that had been harvested from this plantation were probably single-cross hybrids that had been hand-planted.

111. They don't which family we're in, but they know we're here!- Branches or leaders (first slide) and leaves (second slide) of black tupelo or black gum (Nyssa sylvatica var. sylvatica) growing on a young (roughly five years post planting) loblolly pine plantation in southwestern Mississippi. Black tupelo is probably second only to sweetgum as a native hardwood tree species that volunteers on clearcuts of loblolly pine, especially loblolly pine plantations, (and also on shortleaf pine and shortleaf pine-mixed hardwood forests). Black gum was ranked as Tolerant by Burns and Honkala (1990) who noted that black tupelo does not usually attain dominance but occupies the mid-canopy (ie. lower tree) layer in forests. By contrast, sweetgum is an Intolerant species (Burns and Honkala, 1990), but forest observers frequently find adult sweetgums that have persisted into successionally advanced or even climax forests. Burns and Honkala (1990) explained that sweetgum seedlings and saplings can persist in pine plantations (eg. those of loblolly pine) to be released with pine harvest, especially clearcutting.

At any rate, both black tupelo and sweetgum are native colonizing (initial or, at least, early seral) tree species and there are some of these pioneer trees that persist into the climax forest. The most dramatic aspect of blackgum or black tupelo (and sweetgum) is the high proportion of cover they comprise in cutover or clearcut forests. This can seriously retard establishment of pine seedlings or planted "baby" pines.

At one point in commercial forest production (ie. industrial forestry) aerial application of selective herbicides such as silvex, 2-(2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy)propionic acid, was standard practice to control broadleaf (angiosperm) tree species (weed trees) such as sweetgum and black tupelo. Silvex was banned in the United States in 1985, but replacement herbicides such as Imazapyr are still used (commonly but not exclusively) for control of hardwood tree species in industrial production of loblolly pine.

Blackgum (= black gum) has interesting wood characteristics, especially the feature of interlocking grains that prevents splitting (Kurz, 2003, p. 218; Kirkman et al., 2007, p. 119). The fruit (a drupe of comparatively small size) of blackgum is readily eaten by wildlife species ranging from small passerines (perching birds) through upland game and furbearers up to black bear (Ursus americana) while the browse is valuable for white-tailed deer (Samuelson and Hogan, 2003, ps. 148-149).

Silvics of water tupelo were covered by Burns and Honkala (1990). Harlow et al. (19779, ps. 428-429) provided the standard dendrological treatment. Morphological descriptions and general taxonomic aspects of black gum (= blackgum) or black tupelo were in Sargent (1933, ps. 780-781), Vines (1960, ps. 801-802), Kurz (2003, ps. 218-219), Samuelson and Hogan (2003, ps. 148-149), and Kirkman et al. (2007, ps. 118-119). Some of these earlier works did not divide N. sylvatica into N. sylvatica var. sylvatica, blackgum or black tupelo, and N. sylvatica var. bilfora, swamp blackgum, and some that did recognize varieties did not use sylvatica as one of these. As is so often the case with scientific names of plants, interpretations vary with which "botanical bible version" one consults.

In this regard there has been something of a "running brush skrimish" as to whether Nyssa belongs in its own family, Nyssaceae, or is part of the dogwood family, Cornaceae. Readers are, of course, free to choose their own accepted version. Rangemen, foresters, wildlifers, (not to ignore hikers and hunters) know one thing: blackgum or black tupelo comes in "thicker than hair on a dog's back" on harvested loblolly pine plantations. Blackgum is joined in such seral habitats by sweetgum, red maple, and winged elm.

Homochitto National Forest, Franklin County, Mississippi. Mid-July.

Habitat note: Seral vegetation like that seen in the slides immediately above of a second-year clearcut loblolly pine plantation (the plant community in the second warm-growing season post-harvest of loblolly pine) was ideal for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus), eastern cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) , and other wildlife species species (including those without white coloration).

Loblolly pine plantations, specially those in which there is no control [chemical control being the most effective method] control of native hardwoods, is ideal for production of small and mid-sized upland game species. Forestry, Range Management, and Wildlife Management are intricately linked; in fact, they are--in effect--one and the same. See both above and below for more examples of this agricultural fact.

112. Harvest in the pine field- Plantation of loblolly pine recently harvested (approximately four months prior to photographs) in the Kiamichi Mountains, a sub-mountain range within the overall Ouachita Mountains, of southeast Oklahoma with onset of secondary plant succession. Harvest residue (plant material such as smaller parts of tree trunks, limbs, branches, etc.) remaining in the forest after cutting and removal of wood is known as slash. Slash is the forest equivalent of agronomic crop aftermath (eg. post-harvest stalks, straw, and similar crop residue of field crops harvested for grain, oil seeds, roots, tubers, or forages).

Harvest of loblolly pine for pulp, posts, poles, or even fuel wood typically results in considerable slash (crop aftrmath, post-harvest residue) as seen in these two photographs taken soon after tree harvest. Utilization of trees for biomass production should result in removal (harvest or recovery) of a greater proportion of wood that would otherwise be left in the forest as slash. This does imply or infer that leaving slash (or any other residue) "in the field" (on the forest land surface) is wasteful. Such residue adds organic matter, recycles mineral nutrients, sequesters carbon (as a component of carbon dioxide, the major greenhouse gas), provides microhabitats that can be beneficial to plants and animals (including increased or improved regeneration of important tree crop and forage/browse species), and serve as a source of fuel when fire is a part of forest regeneration. Then, again, slash could be utilized as another forest product (or by-product) such as fuel wood for home heating. Desirability of slash for any of these (and there are other) purposes depends on forest management objectives.

The young, green plants growing on this clearcut loblolly pine plantation included stump/root sprouts or seedlings of hardwood species such as sweetgum, blackgum, oak species plus young plants of annual forbs especially Canada wild lettuce or tall wild lettuce, blue or Florida lettuce, and common horseweed or mare'stail.

113. Forest crop residue- Cut surface of loblolly pine stump recently harvested off of a pine plantation in the Ouachita Mountains (specifically the Kiamichi Mountains sub-mountain range) in southeast Oklahoma. A few pieces of slash accompanied this stump as part of the crop residue remaining after tree harvest. There were about 30-33 growth rings in this stump. Small green plants in this view were horseweed or mare'stail and Canada wild lettuce.

This was in the clearcut plantation shown in the immediately preceding two slides.

114. Going back, but it'll be helped anyway- Edge of a recently clearcut plantation of loblolly pine in the Kiamichi Mountains, a sub-division or sub-range of the Ouachita Mountains, in southeast Oklahoma. This portion of the plantation perimeter adjoined a stand of native trees (which excluded the introduced, hybrid loblolly pine) including native oak,s hickories, sweetgum, and blackgum or black tupelo. Seedlings as well as stump sprouts of these hardwood species plus those of red maple made up much of the foliar cover seen in this slide. There were some seedlings produced from seeds of the now-harvested loblolly pine.

There were also seedlings of Florida, blue or tall wild lettuce; Florida or yellow wild lettuce; mare'stail or horseweed; hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis); several caric-sedges (Carex spp.); and various rosette panicgrasses.

115. Going back on its own- A roadcut in the Caddo Mountains, one of several sub-ranges or subdivisions of the Ouachita Mountains, in southwest Arkansas that was going back through forest succession to a loblolly pine-sweetgum pioneer forest. These two species are pioneer trees throughout much of the southeastern portion of the once-immense Eastern Deciduous Forest. They are not initial colonizers like annual forbs and grasses, but they are pioneer tree species. Lloblolly pine persist in later seral stages and climax but at at much lower relative cover and density as more shade/competition tolerant tree species like the oaks and hickories become dominant on many forest sites.

Fire and frequent harvest (including cutting of hardwoods) can shift the competitive advantage away from the hardwoods as such disturbance tends to maintain the forest sere in lower seral stages.

Polk County, Arkansas. Early July; early estival aspect. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest & Woodland 123, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest 123.1, Pine Series 123.12 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 38). Ouachita Mountains- Athens Plateau ecoregion 36a (Woods et al., 2004).

116. Start of a short lesson- This and the next three slides treated the subject of loblolly pine plantations on private property in a part of the (Kiamichi Mountains, part of the larger or general Ouachita Mountains, in southeast Oklahoma. This short lesson was from the Three Rivers Wildlife Management Area which is owned by the Weyerhaeuser Company and managed in cooperation or conjuction with the Wildlife Division of Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation. Anyone within a certain age bracket wishing to use this land for any recreational purpose must purchase a Land Access Fee permit (which can be bought where hunting and fishing licenses are sold).

At time of these photographs the author was old enough that he did have to buy (have) a permit, but it is an interesting question if he technically (legally) would have had to have a Land Access Fee permit to take these photographs if he was in a younger age group. Was taking slides for educational pruposes "recreation"?

Even the simpliest things have gotten complicated on the range. Do not gripe about bureaucracy, red tape, regulations, sundry fees, etc. on public land. This was private land with the "invisible hand" of Adam Smith operating the free market (ie. charging whatever the traffic would bear). To the credit of the Weyerhaeuser Company (and the free enteprise system) they did three honorable things in this regard: 1) supported conservation of natural resources (including wildlife) and made it profitable to do so, 2) worked in cooperation with the state (public) wildlife conservation/management agency, and 3) honored youth and senior citizens by exempting these "cohorts" from use fees.

Three Rivers Wildlife Management Area, McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Late June.

117. A young pine field- Plantation of loblolly pines of ages five to seven years in the Pineywoods of the Kiamichi Mountains in southeast Oklahoma with an herbaceous layer that produced a high yield of biomass (heavy standing crop of herbage). Herbaceous species included broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), Nuttall's wild indago (Baptsia nuttalliana), and various species of rosette panicgrasses (Panicum species in the Dichanthelium subgenus). There were numerous forb species, especially composites like soft golden-aster (Heterotheca pilosa= Chrysopsis pilosa= Bradburia pilosa) which was abundant in midground of this photograph, as well as the naturalized sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cunneata).

There were some small seedlings of sweetgum, blackgum, and red maaple, but these were not yet of the size of young, planted loblolly pines. Besides seedlings of sweetgum and blackgum or black tupelo the main woody species in this forest range community was some blackberry (Rubus species).

It is at this stage in the plantation rotation that herbage yield is highest and this transitory forest range best suited for grazing, especially by cattle.

Three Rivers Wildlife Management Area, McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). ; early estival aspect. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest & Woodland 123, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest 123.1, Pine Series 123.12 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 38). Ouachita Mountains- Central Mountain Ranges 36b (Woods et al., 2005).

118. An affinity with grassland and savanna- Two plants of Nuttall's wild-indigo (Baptisia nuttalliana) growing with broomsedge bluestem, poverty oatgrass, naturalized sericea lespedeza, rosette panicgrass species, and soft golden-aster Kiamichi Mountains in southeast Oklahoma. These two plants of Nuttall's wild-indigo were the same two individuals shown in far right midground of the immediately preceding photograph. Although not visible in this slide, one of the more abundant plants in this seral forest community was a blackberry (Rubus) species. Also not visible here, though the dominant naturally regenerated woody species, were sweetgum and blackgum. This plant life was growing on a five- to seven-year old loblolly pine plantation.

Although the Baptisia species are generally grassland legumes, Nuttalll's wild-indigo is mostly a forest or, more likely, woodland species (especially on sandy soils) of southcentral North America, being found as far east as Mississippi, west as Texas and Oklahoma, and north as Missouri (Correll and Johnston, 1979, ps. 799-800).

The specific epithet commerates or honors Thomas Nuttall was an early Nineteenth Century botanist for whom this species was named by a more recent (yet pioneer plant explorer and taxonomist) John K. Small who, in 1933, authored Manual of the Southeastern Flora (Correll and Johnston, 1979, p. 1789). These guys sort of scratched each other's backs.

Three Rivers Wildlife Management Area, McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Late June; peak standing crop, late-immature fruit stage.

119. Fat legumes on "new land"- Upper shoots with leaves and legumes of Nuttall's wild-indigo growing on a five- to seven-year old loblolly pine plantation in the Kiamichi Mountains in southeast Oklahoma. These shoots were on the left plant (of two plants) in the immediately preceding slide. These plants had made themselves to home on the disturbed habitat of a clearcut loblolly pine plantation forest that had been promptly replanted. Baptisia species are generally regarded as late successional or, even, climax species.

This species was readily identified as it is the only Baptisia species in this area with axillary flower clusters and a sharply recurved beak on its legumes (Correll and Johnston, 1979, p. 1789; Diggs et al., 1999, p. 638). As would be expected of the papilionaceous legmues, the Baptisia species are generally regarded as being quite palatable. This author, however, has witnessed numerous examples (over a wide geographic area) where livestock as well as wildlife shuned plants of the wild-indigos leaving them untouched even on heavily grazed ranges.

Three Rivers Wildlife Management Area, McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Late June; late-immature fruit stage.

120. An older pine field- a plantation of loblolly pine about eight to ten years of age in the Pineywoods of southeast Oklahoma (Kiamichi Mountains). This stand was adjacent to the plantation of younger pines shown in the immediately preceding slide. At this stage in the plantation rotation saplings of sweetgum, blackgum (= black tupelo), and black oak (Quercus velutina), and red maple were beginning to approach height of the slightly older, planted loblolly pine.

At this stage of plantation forest development there was still high cover and heavy biomass yield of broomsedge bluestem, the predominant herbaceous species in this stand. There was considerable cover of blackberry (Rubus sp.), the dominant shrub in this view, cat green-brier (Smilax rotundifolia) and also a much cover by muscadine grape (Vitis rotundifolia), though less cover of this native grape than of blackberry or even cat green-brier. Cover of woody plants was so thick that there was not much herbaceous growth/cover, but bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum) and broomsedge bluestem were well-represented. Bahiagrass is a naturalized agronomic introduction while the native broomsedge beardgrass is an invader of old fields, cut-over forest, and overgrazed pastures and ranges.

McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). ; early estival aspect. FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest & Woodland 123, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest 123.1, Pine Series 123.12 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 38). Ouachita Mountains- Central Mountain Ranges 36b (Woods et al., 2005).

121. Still yet older pine field- Older plantation of loblolly pine in the Pineywoods of southeast Oklahoma (Kiamichi Mountains) that had been thinned and pruned. This was the seed tree method of loblolly pine regeneration. While it was successful with a good crop of six to nine foot young loblolly pines there was also tremendous regeneration of oaks and hickories, especially mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa). There was also much cover of grasses including Canada wildrye (Elymus canadensis), bahiagrass, Japanese chess (Bromus japonicus) and forbs especially composites such as a profusely flowering black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia hirsuta) in center foreground.

This forest stand was in close proximity to the two younger plantations of younger loblolly pines shown immediately above.

122. Inconvenient commoner- Shoot (first or upper slide) and inflorescence or flower cluster (second or lower slide) of Virginia stickseed (Hackelia virginiana= Lappula virginiana) growing at edge of the loblolly pine plantation presented and described immediately above. This is a biennial forb that is extremely widespread. Steyermark (1963, p. 1256) stated that it occurred in every county in Missouri. Virginia stickseed or beggar's lice as it sometimes called (a confusing common name that is applied to several species in various plant families) occurs in almost every US state (apparently not Florida) and Canadian province east of the Rocky Mountains. There is some controversy concerning this matter however as Haines (2011, p. 461) alleged that the designation by Fernald (1950) of H. virginiana in New England was a misidentification of plants that were actually H. deflexa.

Virginia stickseed is an opportunistic species that thrives on disturbance. Hence, it is a common species around loblolly pine plantations and, thus, on the plantation used as an example here. The name of stickseed refers to the ability of the fruit to readily "stick" (adhere) to unwary passersby through epidermal appendages evolved for the purpose of zoochory (dispersal of plant propagules by animals). The fruit of stickseed is actually a bur-like affair interpreted by Haines (2011, p. 461) as a schizocarp that typically consist of four nutlets.

McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Late June; latter part of bloom phenological stage.

123. No doubt about this one's family ties- Terminal flower of Virginia stickseed. This flower was produced on the plant introduced in the preceding slide/caption unit. Harder to see at this small scale, but there is no question but what this plant is a member of the borage family (Boraginaceae). Fruit (a schizocarp) produced from such flowers are evolutionarily designed to adhere to unsuspecting travelers beit wildlife, livestock, dog, or man. Thus, the common moniker of stickseed.

Obsiously this natural selection adaptation is highly effective and one that presents an inconvenience to those passing by. It is, however, a minor inconvenience and a small price to pay for the privileged joy of being in the woods, even when it has been highly modified by man in the case of plantation forestry.

McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Late June.

124. A foreigner for disturbance- A typically spindly specimen of Brazilian vervain (Verbina brasiliensis), an exotic, rank-growing, perennial forb, thriving on the edge of a loblolly pine plantation in the Kiamichi Mountains of southeastern Oklahoma. This plant was growing a few steps away from the specimen of Virginia stickseed that was presented and discussed immediately above. Both plants were representative of their species which grow on disturbed environments. Tthese forb species--whether native or introduced--are ecological invaders, either initial colonizers or early seral pioneers in secondary plant succession). The alien or exotic Brazilian vervain is a weed in all senses, definitions, descriptions, etc of the term. It is "weedy" as in rank-growing and colonizing (at least, early pioneering) of disturbed habitats, a weed in the agronomic sense as having a net negative role or influence for human purposes (agricultural and other uses), and a weed in an ecological context as being an alien or exotic invader (ie. an invasive non-native plant species). Brazilian vervain is clearly an early seral species. Time will tell if Brazilian vervain becomes an aggressively invasive species.

According to Correll and Johnston (1979, p. 1318) and Diggs et al. (1999, p.1056) V. brasiliensis (as implied by the specific epithet) is a forb native to South America that was somehow introduced into North America. At present it appears that Brazilian vervain is spreading (= naturalizing) and that it does not grow strictly as an adventive species (one that can persist only when inadvertently planted or cultivated by man, as in roadsides).

Major neighboring plant species included bahiagrass and hairy crabgrass, exoptic panicoid grasses that are also ecological invaders and species that have naturalized, at least to the point of thriving under human-induced disturbance.

McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Mid-July; peak standing crop, late-bloom phenological stage.

125. Disturbance did not deter this exotic- Lower branches (first or upper slide) and a single branch at closer camera distance (second or lower slide) of Brazilian vervain growing at the edge of a young loblolly pine plantation in the Kiamichi Mountainsin southeastern Oklahoma. These photographs featured parts of the same plant that was introduced in the immediately preceding slide.

The species is clearly one that as a low-value (for human purposes) "foreigner" and an ecological invader has plants that are primarily weeds (ie. it is not a crop and its economic and ecological costs to humans outweigh its benefits). There is one thing that is "natural" about Brazilian vervain in North America: it is a natural for extreme man-made disturbances such as site preparation and other silvicultural operations involving plantations of loblolly pine.

McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Mid-July; peak standing crop, late-bloom phenological stage.

126. Skinny alien- Part of the spindly, "stringly" inflorescence-bearing shoots of the specimen ofBrazilian vervain shown and described in the two immediately preceding slide/caption sets. This plant was growing on the edge of a young loblolly pine plantation in the Kiamichi Mountains (southeastern Oklahoma) in early summer. It was a perfect disturbance habitat for this "foreigner" from South America.

Just look at all the foreigners that invade the essentially open southern border of the United States of America.

McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Mid-July; late-bloom phenological stage.

127. Thinned out- Stand of loblolly pine thinned for optimum growth of individual trees and wood yield. Yaupon holly comprised a lower, second woody layer. Herbaceous understorey consisted of a diversity of grasses including especially longleaf woodoats, panicgrasses (Panicum and Dichanthium spp.), and paspalums (Paspalum spp. including the naturalized Vaseygrass) along with sedges (Carex and Cyperus spp.) and spikerushes (Eleocharis spp.).

Within a relatively short period (probably less than 10-15 years) this stand will become a closed canopy monoculture of plantation loblolly pine like that shown immediately below.

Hardin County, May, estival aspect. Pyric or anthropogenic variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) that would terminate in dominance by hardwood species. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Pine Series, 123.12, in Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

128. Loblolly forest at mature stage relative to harvest (mainly pulp wood)- Closed canopy forest that is totally devoid of understory. Stands of loblolly pine such as this essentially single-species stand are transitory range that is grazable/browswable only until the upperstory of trees closes thereby depriving understory layers (often even shrub stories) of light. Houston County, Texas.March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Pyric or anthropogenic variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) that would terminate in dominance by hardwood species. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Pine Series (123.12) in Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community (123.1) of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

129. Small clear-cut of loblolly pine like that pictured in previous slide— What slash is not used locally as fire wood following pole and/or pulp wood harvest will be burned and the site prepared for replanting which is typically artificial propagation (planting of nursery grown seedlings rather than natural regeneration by seeding from adjacent or scattered remaining trees).

Liberty County, Texas. March. FRES No.13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem).K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest).SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

130. A loblolly pine plantation eight years following planting of seedlings in a clear-cut like the one immediately above— The plantation understory is being grazing by cattle as a means of biological control of the fiercely competitive weed tree, sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), as well as utilization of the native grasses that vary from climax Andropogon and Panicum species to the the threeawns or wiregrasses and crabgrasses (Digitaria spp.). Little bluestem and broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) are the dominant grasses shown here. Native hickory and oak species have regenerated by both coppice sprouting and seedling emergence yet are less a brush problem than seral sweetgum.This illustrates that oak and hickory species are natural dominants of the climax and that the human inputs of forest management are essential to economically raise the crops of pines which are minor climax dominants relative to the hardwoods.Note preferencial grazing first of grasses and secondly of browsing on hardwoods. Pines have not been browsed. Loblolly pine transitory range.Weyerheuser-contracted crop.

LeFlore County, Oklahoma. May. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine) or SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Pine Series of Brown et al.(1998). Ouachita Mountains- Athens Plateau Ecoregion, 36a (Woods et al., 2005).

131. Transitory forest range in a 10 to12 year-old hybrid loblolly pine plantation showing ungrazed understory that is tallgrass prairie of little bluestem, big bluestem, broomsedge bluestem, Indiangrass, and side-oats grama. Hardwood species like oaks, hickories, and sweetgum are totally absent due largely to previous heavy browsing by cattle.Weyerheuser trees.

McCurtain County, Oklahoma. July. FRES No.13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine) or SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Cretaceous Dissected Uplands Ecoregion, .35d (Woods et al., 2005).

132. Loblolly pine regeneration (and competition) in cut-over forest- Natural regeneration of loblolly pine from seed following clearcutting (even-aged regeneration method). The pines are in competition and face the threat of wild fire from the lush growth of native grasses including broomsedge bluestem (the most abundant grass), splitbeard bluestem, big bluestem, plus various species of Panicum, Paspalum, and Sporobolus.

133. Vulnerable to fire- Close-up view of a loblolly pine seedling in the cut-over forest shown immediately above. This silvic baby is about as vulnerable as a newborn lamb. The seedling was surrounded by broomsedge bluestem (the Andropogon species closest to it), splitbeard bluestem, little bluestem with dead herbage of Panicum and Paspalum species not far away. This new pine was produced by natural reproduction (seed production, germination, and emergence) and there are frequently too many such seedlings produced so that killing of the vast excess by fire is essential management for efficient, economical production of forest products. On this cut-over forest, however, regeneration was not excessive thus necessitating protection of the next cohort of loblolly pines from fire at this vulnerable stage of their life cycle.

Grazing by cattle (the kind of range animal most likely to consume grass and not browse on pines) would reduce the fuel load produced by grasses (and some grasslike plants and forbs)thereby reducing chances of wild fire that would eliminate the barely adequate stocking of loblolly pine. Grazing of such rank, dormant, and, in instance of broomsedge and splitbeard bluestems, unpalatable grasses at this stage of full plant maturity and dormancy is not feasible. Cattle will not graze such herbage as show here (at least not at levels of voluntary forage intake that would be profitable to cattlemen). Rather, grazing should have been done back when these herbaceous species were immature and less unpalatable (ie. get on top and stay on top of the potential fuel).

Harrison County, Texas. December.

134. Waiting to burn and die- A fine loblolly pine seedling in an ocean of grass herbage. Grass material was mostly from broomsedge and splitbeard bluestems, species of extremely low palatability. Getting loblolly pine to enough height to withstand a wild fire on this cut-over pine forest is "ify" and one time when even rangemen (if they done a forester's hardhat for a time) find common cause with that otherwise deplorable bruin, Smokey Bear.

The forest range shown here is in the heart of the loblolly pine region and to the west of longleaf pine forest. Thus, wise use of prescribed fire is not as (perhaps not) feasible. Grazing of this regenerating loblolly pine forest by beef cattle would be one of the best--if not the best--practices to maximize the chance of establishing the next crop of wood. Of course, grazing of unpalatable species like broomsedge and splitbeard bluestems has to begin when herbage is young and more acceptable to cattle. Cows and calves would be preferable to steers on low-quality feed such as that seen here because stocker cattle must achieve higher levels of individual performance to be profitable under the almost-always negative price structure (heavier cattle fetch lower prices per cwt.). See there, the ole range professor slipped in one of the Cardinal Principles of Range Management: Proper Kind and Class of Range Animal (in this case, class as to sex of animal).

Harrison County, Texas. December.

135. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)- Seedlings and young trees of longleaf pine are seen here in at least four age classes. Longleaf pine is one of the most fire-tolerant trees in North America. Natural and Indian-set fires contributed to persistence of Pinus species in the deciduous forests of eastern North America. This was particularly the case for longleaf pine where fire maintained parklike forest of almost pure longleaf with a grassy understory much like the case for the ponderosa pine forests of western North America. In addition to reduction of a woody understory (and thus likelihood of a crown fire) fire may have helped control southern blister or fusiform rusts such as Cronartium fusiforme= C. quercuumf. ssp. fusiforme. (In addition, longleaf pine is more resistant to fusiform rust than is loblolly or slash pine [Baxter, 1943].) Fire has definitely been proven to be useful in control of brown spot disease (Septoria acicola) when longleaf is in the grass stage (Wright and Bailey, 1982, ps. 369, 415). Fire cost the burnt grass stage longleaf a year’s growth because it consumes the needles (fire destroys the brown-spot spores in the fallen leaves), but in absence of this fire the young longleaf trees would die from brown-spot disease.

Winter burns at three year intervals result in doubling the growth of longleaf. Longleaf pine is much more tolerant of fire than are loblolly and slash pine. Natural fires at two to three year intervals maintained longleaf whereas a reduced fire frequency results in loblolly and slash pine becoming the dominant Pinus species. Absence of fire results in succession to the climatic climax mixed pine-deciduous (= hardwood) forest. (Wright and Bailey, 1982, ps. 368-371). In other words, all the southern pine forest types are fire types and this is most true for the longleaf pine type. Stand of young longleaf pine in background. Hardin County Texas, May. FRES N0. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-102 (Southern Mixed Forest, Seral Stages), SAF 70 (Longleaf Pine) of the Southern Yellow Pines. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

136. The grass stage of longleaf pine- A longleaf pine seedling in the grass stage (front foreground) and a loblolly pine seedling of comparable age (behind the longleaf) shows conclusively why frequent firing will maintain longleaf pine instead of the more competitive loblolly pine. A surface fire will burn off the leaves of the longleaf seedling and set it back a year’s growth, but the fire will kill the loblolly seedling. In absence of fire brown-spot would likely kill or retard growth of many young longleafs. The actual mechanism by which grass-stage longleaf survives is simple: the needles grow in a dense pattern around the terminal bud (apical meristem), which is the actively growing tissue of the seedling and whose hormones regulate growth of the tree, and protect it (and thus the seedling’s life) from the heat or consumption by the flames. A most remarkable evolutionary adaptation for a desirable forest tree valuable for both its lumber and naval stores. Hardin County, Texas, May. FRES No. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-102 (Southern Mixed Forest, Seral Stages), SAF 70. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

Goodwin (1977, p.99) noted that "forestry is in the porcess of adjusting from an extractive to a generative industry as scientific forest manatement practices ..." become widely adopted (at least in the industrialized democracies). The central silvicultural practices of scientific forestry in the southern pines, especially lobolly pine in the Texas Pineywoods, are clearcutting following by artificial regeneration (ie. tree planting: planting nursery raised pine sedlings immediately or quickly after even-age harvest by clearcutting). a major component of this even-age management is the raising of hybrid loblolly pine and, usually, in pine plantations. .

A forest clearcut is a textbook example of denudation the term used by Clements to designate disturbance of existing vegetation to the degree or extent that recovery (restoration) of vegetation on the sere (ie. revegetation= vegetation development by plant succession) would commence and proceed progressively by the combination of processes which cumulatively resulted in the phenomenon of plant migration. (Weaver and Clements, 1938, ps. 3-4, 117-131). Denudation is the essence of the initial cause of plant community development.

This section treated in more detail the scientific production of loblolly pine wood porducts by standard practices of industrial forestry. Examples were from the Texas Pineywoods as shown.

A clearcut comparsion- The following portion of the loblolly pine section presented a paired comparision of two clearcuts separated by only a state highway (Texas 294) in Anderson County, Texas. The clearcut (even-aged harvest) presented first had been completed just a few days before photographs were taken. The second clearcut to be presented had been completed in the preceding dormant season so that the various plant species, the relative cover and composition comprised by these species, phenological stages of plants, and the general extent and state of plant community recovery (redevelopment of forest vegetation through secondary plant succession) were representative of those at end of first growing season post-harves.

137. Still raw and bloody- Land on which second-growth loblolly pine had been harvested by clearcutting less than two weeks prior to time of photograph. Pines of mature, adult age and size (about 45 years old and 20 inches plus DBH) had been felled by machine rotary saw. No post-harvest site preparation on this freshly cleared land had been done this soon following logging.

Loblolly pine of somewhat younger age and smaller size were in the block or stand in the background. These photographs presented an example of plantation forestry at the very beginning (just prior to tree replanting) and the near-end (only a few years before logging) of a cycle (a rotation) spanning about a half century.A wood crop of saw logs nearing maturity (harvest stage) was adjacent to (behind in these slides) ground on which a mature crop of poles had just been harvested. Solomon knew the routine: "... a time to plant, and a time to pluck up that which is planted" (Ecclesiastes 3: 2).

Anderson County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

138. Scabbed and hairing over- Evening sunlight highlighted a clearcut on which 40 to 50 year-old saw logs had been harvested the preceding winter. Seral range vegetation on this clearcut was at end of the first full growing season following logging. The first year of the pioneer stage of secondary succession was drawing near. Individual plants of warm-season species were nearing phenological maturity as shortening daylength and cooler temperatures of early autumn foretold of the first frost and onset of a mild east Texas winter. A "fresh-cut" forest had formed its successional "scab" and the pioneer plant community provided cover of newly bared, erosion-susceptible soil to set the stage for forest restoration. This is the dynamics of vegetation that applied ecologists like Henry Chandler Cowles and Frederic Edwards Clements documented and described. Dynamic vegetation is the material and process by which foresters and rangemen grow plant crops of fiber, fuel, and feed on a sustainable basis while protecting and wisely using the necessary natural resources.

Plant species included those of annual, biennial, and perennial life cycles; herbaceous and woody tissues; native and exotic origins; and weedy and humanly beneficial features. The dominant and tallest grass was pine bluestem (Andropogon divergens). Arrowfeather threeawn (Aristida purpurascens) was the associate grass species. There were some annual threeawns including old-field threeawn (A. oligantha) and churchmouse threeawn (A. desmantha). Several species of rosette panicgrasses (Panicum, subgenus Dichanthelium) were in vegetative stages that could not be identified to species level. Bahiagrass (Psapalum notatum) and Vaseygrass (P. urvillei), introduced pasture grasses, were present but much less abundant that the two preceding species. There was only limited (very sparse cover) of hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), a typical annual and exotic pioneer species. Similarly, there was only limited cover of broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus). Hence, most grass cover was perennial. and native, higher seral more than lower seral, and it was cespitose (bunchgrass) more than sod-forming in life form.

Major forbs included yankeeweed (Eupatorium compositifolium), late thoroughwort or autumn boneset (E. serotinum), and hogwort or wooly croton (Croton capitatus). Giant ragweed, a widely distributed and common native pioneer species was not recorded on this clearcut (this observer could have overlooked it, but if present it minor compared to those listed. The most common shrub species was American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana).

The tree species with greatest cover and general abundance was sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), and "no surprise there". The distant, second-most abundant tree was southern red oak (Quercus falcata). Third tree species in relative rank of abundance was the dreadfully invasive alien, Chinese tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum). The conventional observation among foresters has been that Chinese tallow tree readily comes in on clearcuts, but that it cannot effectively compete with native hardwoods and, therefore, poses no serious problem to reforesttion and loblolly pine production in the Texas Pineywoods. (Hope they're right.).

There was natural reproduction of loblolly pine on this clearcut (example pine seedlling shown below), but this was not common and it was far less than would be required for rapid reforestation and production of the next wood crop.

139. A closer look at clearcut recovery- View of the loblolly pine clearcut at end of first full growing season following logging. Hogwort, a native annual forb, was featured (lower right corner) along with yankeeweed, late or fall boneset, and American beauthberry, the most abundant shrub species on this clearcut (center front midground and left foreground).

140. Hardwoods came in almost immediately on a loblolly pine clearcut- Secondary plant succession on cutover Pineywoods forests progresses at a comparatively faster rate than succession on old fields. Here sweetgum, largest plant, was accompanied by a new southern red oak (to immediate left of the sweetgum). Both of these plants were resprouts from small saplings that had been sawed off during clearcutting. First-year shoots (stump sprouts, water shoots, suckers) of these two hardwood species were robust and well-established. The author could not find even one pine seedling on this clearcut. It ws likely that seedlings of loblolly pine would emerge in the next year or two by which time hardwoods will be on their way toward dominance of the vegetation.

This phenomenon of rapid establishment by angiosperm species is why severe competition between hardwood and conifer so strongly favors oaks, hickories, and sweetgum over even the fast-growing loblolly pine. It also showed why foresters sometimes rely on selective herbicides tand/or livestock grazing to control hardwood species. More importantly, the difference in rate of growth and plant establishment is why planting larger, nursery raised, young, hybrid loblolly pine greatly reduces rotation time.

Viewers should not be confused by plant life in the midground of this photograph. Vaseygrass, the tall grass plants right behind the baby trees, was growing on a highway (Texas 294) shoulder and was outside of the clearcut.

141. Composites on a clearcut- The Compositae is the largest vascular plant family (based on number of species) on North American rangeland and forest. It is also usually the family that provides the greatest forb cover. This situation obtained on this loblolly pine clearcut as was shown in photographs presented above. In this slide an individual of late or autumn boneset or thoroughwort was flanked left and right by yankeeweed. These two Eupatirium species were dominant forbs on this clearcut during the first growing season for warm-season plant species.

Anderson County, Texas. October; full-bloom stage for boneset and late seedling stage for the yankeeweed in left foreground.

142. Detail of late thoroughwort, autumn boneset, late boneset inflorescence- Apex of flowering shoot of Eupatorium serotinum at peak bloom. Nacogdoches County, Texas. October.

143. Arrowfeather threeawn (Aristida purpurascens)- This specimen (sexual shoots shown in second photograph were on the same plant) was growing on the loblolly pine clearcut described herein. A. purpurasecens was the associate grass species on this clearcut (pine bluestem was the dominant). Individuals of this species tend to be large plants as shown here. Arrowfeather threeawn is obviously a cespitose species (first photograph), but it does have short rhizomes which is an usualy feature in Aristida (Gould, 1975, ps. 382, 390-39).

Anderson County, Texas. October; grain-shatter phenological stage.

144. Feathered panicle- Details of arrowfeather threeawn, a perennial Aristida species that was the associate grass on a loblolly pine clearcut in Texas Pineyuwoods at end of the first full growing. (This panicle was on the plant introduced in the immediately preceding two photographs.) Aristida has consistently been one of the most taxonomically challenging and controversial genera in regards to interpretation and delineation of species. A. purpurasecens is one of the more readily distinguished and morphologically consistent Aristida species, at least in Texas.

Anderson County, Texas. October; grain-shatter phenological stage.

145. Netleaf leather flower (Clematis reticulata)- This is a widely distributed Clematis species in local areas of the central Texas Pineywoods. Netleaf leather flower was wspecially abundant on early seral stage clearcuts and go-back land (= old fields). These examples were growing on the loblolly pine clearing described here at end of first full growing season. They were in an early (immature) stage of fruit development. Anderson County, Texas. October.

146. Closeup of immature fruits of netleaf leather flower- Detailed view of immature fruit of netleaf clematis growing on the loblolly pine clearcut that was shown above. Clematis reticulata was one of the more abundant species on this clearcut: less common than yankeeweed, hogwort, and pine bluestem, but having considerably more cover than arrowfeather threeawn which was the associate grass species. Anderson County, Texas. October.

147. Brush and weeds with the young pines- A four-to six year old plantation of hybrid loblolly pine with diverse combination of pioneer and early seral herbaceous and woody species. Major hardwood tree species were sweetgum, water oak, red maple (Acer rubra), willow oak (Quercus phellos) and southern red oak (Q. falcata) in that approximate order of foliar cover. . The major (most abundant) shrubs were eastern baccharis, sea-myrtle, or consumption-weed (Baccharis halimifolia var. angustior)and southern wax-myrtle (Myrica cerifera) followed by various greenbriars (Smilax spp.). Major forbs were yankeeweed, several goldernrods with the most common being tall golderrod (Solidago altissima), common ragweed (Ambrosia artemissifolia), and hogwort or wooly croton. The most common grass was purpletop. The largest, most conspicuous grass was narrow plumegrass (Erianthus constrictus). Other grasses included the naturalized and regionally ubiquitbious bahiagrass, naturalized and taller-growing Vaseygrass, broomsedge bluestem, pitchfork paspalum (Paspalum bifidum), thin or thinseed paspalum (P. setaceum), brownseed paspalum (P. plicatum), and, the two annuals, hairy crabgrass and old-field threeawn.

This loblolly pine plantation was not being grazed by livestock, and from all appearances had not been stocked with domestic animals since tree-planting. All this part of the Texas Pineywoods was subject to browsing by free-ranging white-tailed deer. This forest was not enclosed by high game fences. Proper grazing/browsing by livestock might in theory have reduced cover of hardwoods, and most certainly would have resulted in some use of palatable grasses like narrow plumegrass and the native Paspalum species. Overstocking this transitiory plantation range with livestock, especially grass-preferring cattle, would almost certainly have resulted in increased cover of unpalatable forbs (ie. weeds) including yankeeweed and goldenrod and brushy shrubs like sea-myrtle or eastern baccharis. Proper livestock management (especially the correct stocking rate) on pine plantations can be a major management practice for enhancing pine establishment through reduced competition, especially from fast-growing hardwood tree species like sweetgum.

Presence of seral forbs, shrubs, and trees (weeds and brush under management of this intended wood crop) clearly increased feed and cover for wildlife over what would have been present with 'clean-farming" of a loblolly pine monocluture.

Cherokee County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

148. Close quarters- Two views to zoom in on the spatial association of four to six year-old loblolly pines and various weed and brush species in a plantation in the central Texas Pineywoods. The most obvious forb (stooped or bowed-down shoots) was yankeeweed. Major hardwoods (background) were sweetgum and water oak. Eastern baccharis and southern wax-myrtle were locally the most shrubs. Most of the grass biomass in these "photoplots" was purpletop.

149. Another composite in the loblolly pine plantation (just what we needed)- Another pioneering to early seral composite that is common in pine plantations throughout the Texas Pineywoods is the shrub or suffrutescent forb known variously as eastern baccharis, sea-myrtle, or consumption-weed (Baccharis halimifolia var. angustior). This species is also very common throughout much of the Gulf Region of North America, including the adjacent Coastal Prairie and Marshes Vegetational Area in Texas where it has to have high tolerance to salt in its habitat.

Cherokee County, Texas. October

150. Eastern baccharis, sea-myrtle, or consumption-weed (Baccharis halimifolia var. angustior)- Two plants of a woody composite that survives in a wide diversity of habitats ranging from coastal grasslands, forest openings, old fields ("go-back land"), and cut-over forests. Sea myrtle is found as far east as the Atlantic Coast in Massachusetts (Fernald, 1950, p. 1448). In east Texas it occurs in the Pineywoods, Coastal Prairies and Marshes, and Post Oak Savannah vegetationa areas. The examples presented here (and immediately below) were growing in the plantation of young loblolly pine being featured here.

Under management goals of plantation forestry any non-crop species can be viewed as noxious (= pest) plants, either weeds (herbaceous plants) or brush (woody plants). Eastern baccharis could be categorized as a brush species, but it like other non-wood crop plant is likely of some benefit to wildlife which on many forest opertions might be a secondary crop (the egress fee being a major source of revenue to the firm).

Cherokee County, Texas. October; peak bloom phenological stage.

151. A late-bloomer- Leaders of male eastern baccharis or consumption-weed. All Baccharis species are dioecious. B. halimifolia was represented by this male that was caught on Kodachrome doing his thing in a young plantation of loblolly pine.

Cherokee County, Texas. October; peak bloom phenological stage.

152. Male anatomy- Details of staminate flowers in sea-myrtle or eastern baccharis. These were on the same plant as shown in the two immediately preceding slides. Cherokee County, Texas. October.

153. Damnyankee plant- Yankee weed or yankeeweed (Eupatorium compostifolium) growing at end of a row of lobololly pine in a plantation in the northern portion of Texas Pineywoods. The traditional (and accepted as correct when used as a descriptively deragotary term) use of "damnyankee" as a single and unhyphenated word can be traced back in American history at least as far as when a woman explained to President Abraham Lincoln that it was one word.Yankee weed is a pestiferous semi-woody composite that is one of the more widespread and abundant weeds on clearcuts, newly replanted forests, and pine plantations (especially those with comparatively young saplings). Yankeeweed has been shown as one word as, for example, by Grelen and Hughes (1984, ps. 99, 100).

Like eastern baccharis or sea myrtle introduced above, the categorization of yankee weed as a generally noxious species should not prejudice students, foresters, and land-owners from appreciating the benefits provided by typically seral (ruderal) species. Some of the advantageous "services" provided by weeds and brush at certain population densities include cover for erosion-susceptible soils disturbed by silvicultural practices as well as for wildlife such as upland game species.

Pine plantation in Houston County, Texas. October; full-bloom stage of phenology.

154. Yankeeweed in a paired comparison of light conditions- A single plant of Eupatorium compostifolium growing in a plantation of yound loblolly pine was photographed twiceover a period of less than two minutes under conditions of full-sun (left slide) and overcast (right slide) sky. Occasionally people will argue with this photographer that the most revealing photographs of range plants (photographs that show botanical features to greatest advantage) are taken under overcast or generally cloudly skies. This comparison will let viewers see for themselves. Damnyankee cloud-worshipers.

The top-heavy, drooping or stooped habit shown in this individual is very typical of this species at peak biomass and, especially, when bearing inflorescences and fruit.

Pine plantation in Cherokee County, Texas. October; full-bloom stage of phenology.

155. A more intimate view of a damnyankee plant- Details of leaves and and flowers on branches of yankeeweed in a loblolly pine plantation. This plant was growing in the same stand of planted loblolly pine as the plant presented in the preceding two photographs.

Pine plantation in Cherokee County, Texas. October; full-bloom stage of phenology.

156. A tallgrass species in the pine plantation- Narrow plumegrass (Erianthus constrictus) in the dormant stage was the featured species is this mixture of forbs, shrubs, and needles of loblolly pine on the plantation described at this juncture. Narrow plumegrass is one of three Erianthus species indigenous to the Texas Pineywoods. As implied by both common and scientific name the constricted panicle is the key morphological feature of this species.

Bent-awn plumegrass (E. contortus) is another Erianthus species that is widely distributed and locally dominant in the Pineywoods. That species was presented above in this Loblolly Pine section. The large size and rank growth feature of Erianthus species limits their palatability to grazing animals, but they produce plentiful herbage and are decreasers in grazing response thus serving as indicator plants on Pineywoods forest range.

Pine plantation in Cherokee County, Texas. October; plants in dormancy.

157. A contracted affair- Contracted panicle of narrow plumegrass on a four- to six-year-old loblolly pine plantation in central Pineywoods of east Texas. This one had to be photographed on a cloudy, breezy morning resulted in a blurred close-up (second slide) of this interesting--and quite fertile--inflorescence. On the disturbed soil of pine plantations Erianthus species typically occur as isolated individuals of in small groups. Their presence affords excitement among grassmen, especially those who are merely visitors to the Pineywoods.

Pine plantation in Cherokee County, Texas. October; dormant phenological stage.

158. 'round the stump- A rotting stump of loblolly pine from the preceding wood crop was surrounded by a host of pioneer and early seral forbs and shrubs (ie. weeds and brush in the current young tree crop) on a four- to six-year-old plantation of the next rotation of loblolly pine. Yankeeweed (left side of stump) was overall the dominant forb on this plantation in the Texas Pineywoods. Southern wax-myrtle (larger plant at right sided of stump) was a major shrub. The other principal shrub was sea-myrtle or eastern baccharis, a specimen of which was in background (upper left corner). Tall goldenrod was the showy yellow forb in left-center midground. This local assemblage was a "sample plot" of lower layers in this pine plantation.

159. Natural reproduction- This seedling of loblolly pine was one of the relatively few of its species that came from natural reproduction (germinated from seed produced by a member of a previous crop of loblolly pine) on this clearcut and current plantation. The small size of this little tree as compared to that of human-planted trees (currently, saplings) in the four-to six-year-old plantation explained why on commercial (industrial) forests nursery grown hybrid pines are planted (by machine nontheless) instead of waiting on the much slower natural reproduction from seed in the on-location soil. Hybrid nursery stock also have the advantage of superior genetics for more rapid growth (meaning less time required for trees to reach harvest size) in addition to being older and larger when planted than on-site seedlings (ie. boughten seedlings have a head start on "home-grown" ones).

Houston County, Texas. October.

160. "Pines in lines"- This expression and the equally terse, "Planting pines in a line", sums up east Texas foresters' description of commercial forestry in the Pineywoods. Varietal stock (clonal material) of some of the most rapid growing loblolly pines serves as the germ plasm for pines seedlings planted in plantations of industrial forests where trees are grown almost exclusively for wood commodities (pulp or sawtimber). Shown here and in several sets of slides immediately below was still yet another plantation of fast-growing loblolly pine. Pines of varietal stock grow at such rapid rates that it is difficult to know the exact age of the plantation without being told or knowing personally when loblolly pines were planted.

Loblolly pine managed as plantation forest generally have a rotation of 25 years ( sometimes as low as 22 or even 20 years depending on site potential and favorability of weather during the period of tree growth). Loblolly pine produced from clonal matieral can reach 15 to 16 inches DBH at 20 years. In fact, some loblolly pine can grow an inch in diameter per year. Even in the first year (ie. at one year of age) a seedling can grow to a height of six to seven feet (Michael Fountain, Professor of Forestry, Stephen F. Austin University; personal communication).

The loblolly pine plantation presented here consisted of larger saplings (probably a year or two older and a few feet taller) than those of the loblolly pine planting described above. It was possible that site production potential varied between these two plantations, but the most obvious difference was lower cover, density, and relative abundance of weeds and brush on this plantation.

Non-crop plants were present in this pine stand at relative proportions that would still furnish some forage, browse, and cover for livestock and wildlife, but at comparative levels that were likely adequate though more consistent with efficient wood fiber production (greater tree growth rate and more profit per acre). Sweetgum was the "number one" hardwood tree species on this plantation with young sweetgum trees clearly visible in both this and the next pair of photographs. Cover and density of oak species and weedy composites was much less than in the loblolly pine plantation presented immediately preceding this plantation.

Rows of loblolly pine were evident in this and the next two sets of paired slides.

Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

161. Rows and weeds- A plantation of hybrid loblolly pine of about six to eight years of age in the central Texas Pineywoods. Weed trees, of which sweetgum was far and away the most common, and miimal cover of herbaceous weeds were featured in these two photographs. At this stage in the rotation there was ample herbaceous cover to provide feed for beef cattle. Sweetgum and scattered oaks along with shrubs offered good yields of browse. Mast, in the form of nuts (such as acorns), was not common given limited number and small size of oaks, but fruits such as those provided by American beautyberry, sumac, and even grapes were generally more abundant due largely to earlier sexual reproduction--fruit production--than in larger, slower-maturing species like oaks.

Forage was provided by purpletop (the grass with herbage yield greater than any other), naturalized bahiagrass, pitchfork paspalum, thinseed or thin paspalum, naturalized bermudagrass and Vaseygrass. The greatest number of important forage-producing grasses were introduced species. The major forb was , but yankeeweed and hogwort or wooly croton were very common at this early autumn period on this as well as other plantations and clearcuts in this area.

162. "We're all in our places"- Hybrid loblolly plants planted in rows in a plantation in the central Pineywoods of east Texas. Spacing of trees and microhabitat (of which space and light are major limiting factors or plant growth resources) for smaller, shorter-growing herbaceous and woody species was evident in these two photogrphs. Some of the major herbaceous plants were yankeeweed, hogwort or wooly croton, purpletop, bahiagrass, bermudagrass, Vaseygrass, pitchfork paspalum, thin or thinseed paspalum, and broomsedge bluestem. Although purpletop, the grass with most biomass at this season, was native it was naturalized introduced grasses (bahiagrass, Vaseygrass, and bermudagrass, were the major ones) that produced most of the limited herbaceous biomass. Sweetgum was the hardwood species that provided the most potential browse. Therefore sweetgum was also the major weed or noncrop tree species and the tree posing the greatest competition for loblolly pine.

163. Feed in and between the rows- Smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), the prominent shrubs in the foreground of both slides, and various species of both native and introduced (and now naturalized) grasses grew among five- to seven-year-old loblolly pines in intrarow (within rows) and interrow spaces of a loblolly pine plantation to provide feed for range animals such as beef cattle, white-tailed deer, and bobwhite quail. Most of the grass biomass in the herbaceous layer shown here was purpletop. The second and third most important shrub from standpoint of biomass (and potential browse production) on this plantation was grape (Vitis sp. with species unknown) and American beautyberry.

Plantations of loblolly pine like this one produce herbage (herbage becomes forage when it is eaten by animals) and browse for livestock and wildlife at earlier periods in the forest rotation. This is the general stage of the tree crop cycle when pines are still small enough that there is adequate light and, secondly, resources like space and soil moisture to permit continued survival of these feed-providing plant species. Forests like those of loblolly pine plantations are transitory range because they provide a grazable/browseable understorey (lower layers of forest vegetation) only until tree crowns grow large enough that there is a more-or-less closed canopy that precludes light from reaching the forest floor. This temporary forest feature of range is an integral aspect of the rotation as the tree crop is in transition from young to adult trees. When pines reach maturity (achieve some size and state of wood development) they are mature or "ripe". In this point in their life cycle trees have grown to harvest stage of the wood crop (ie. their trunks or boles are large enough to market as pulp or lumber). Trees are then felled and hauled to the mill. This makes plant growth factors once again available for the next crop of loblolly pine-- and grasses, forbs, shrubs, and hardwood trees that provide transitory range in the next rotation.

Rotation is the term applied to even-aged forests and regeneration systems for the period of time between regeneration (replanting trees in loblolly pine plantations like the ones described here) and harvest, the final cutting, of that crop of trees (Helms, 1998).

164. Two lessons in one- This pair of slides demonstrated animal feed as a secondary crop to pine trees and the faster rate of artificial vs. natural regeneration. The understorey in a plantation of of five- to seven-year-old loblolly pines in the central Pineywoods of east Texas. Both photographs presented the grass-dominated herbaceous layer below planted loblolly pines. The most important grass species in these two "photopuadrants" were purpletop, bahiagrass, Vaseygrass, common bermudagrass, pitchfork paspalum, and thin paspalum. The native purpletop accounted for most of the grass standing crop at this point in early autumn.

Also in this lower layer of plantation forest vegetation (at this point in the rotation) were seedlings (at least six were clearly visible) of loblolly pine that germinated and emerged from seeds produced from previous crops of pines. The planted hybrid loblolly pines towered over the naturally reproduced seedlings to explain to students why on industrial forests like the ones presented in this section foresters and landowners use nursery raised young trees. Older aged and larger seedlings at time of machine planting (hence, more hardy young trees) as well as faster tree growth rate achieved through plant breeding are the main factors that accounted for the great discrepancy in size between artificial (planted) reproduction and natural (on-site germination-emergence) reproduction.

This loblolly pine plantation had not been grazed by livestock during either of the last two years (waarm growing seasons). Grazing, if any, by livestock before that period was unknown to this author.

165. A fork other than that of a pine tree- Individual plant of pitchfork paspalum (Paspalum bifidum) shown in the first slide and bases of several plants of this species presented in the second slide that were growing in the herbaceous layer of the loblolly pine plantation featured here.

Houston County, Texas. October; phenological stage varied from anthesis to mid-maturity of grain.

166. Pitchfork (if one uses his imagination) in the pines- Panicles of two plants of pitchfork paspalum in the five- to seven-year-old loblolly pine plantation shown in detail herein. Panicle in first photograph was in anthesis while that of second was in soft-dough (mid-maturity). Houston County, Texas. October.

167. Slicked off not all that long ago- A fairly large clearcut (by east Texas standards) of second-growth loblolly pine as it appeared about three and a half months following logging of half century-old trees (approximately 20+ inch DBH) by means of mechanical rotary saw. (Chainsaws have about gone the way of crosscut saws and double-bit axes as harvest tools for logs.)

Pioneer vegetation on this clearcut included peppervine (Ampelopsis arborea), black cherry (Prunus serotina), smooth sumac, Vaseygrass, hairy crabgrass, sharppod morningglory or tievine (Ipomoea cordatotriloba= I. trichocarpa), and the invasive Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica). Sweetgum was absent from the vegetation at this early time following harvest.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

168. Plantation of loblolly pine approaching mature stage- Sequence of views showing structure and species composition of a second-growth, nearly-mature loblolly pine forest was shown in this series of photographs . This second-growth stand was a nearly mature (DBH roughly 15-20 inches; tree age about 45 years) plantation that was conterminous with the recent clearcut described immediately above. Past management of this stand was unknown, but it had been thinned. Charred pine trunks provided circumstantial evidence of prescribed burning (at least convincing evidence of past burning, planned or othewise). The plantation had not been grazed by livestock. White-tailed deer freely ranged throughout this forest.

Major shrubs included peppervine and American beautyberry which were generally the understorey woody species with greatest cover. (Peppervine was also one of the most abundant shrubs on the adjacent, recent clearcut.) Other important shrubs included smooth sumac, yaupon, grape (Vitis sp., but species unknown), and the alien Japanese honeysuckle. Tree species included black cherry, southern red oak, Shumard's or, sometimes, just Shumard oak (Quercus shumardii), and southern sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana). Sweetgum was absent.

Herbaceous species were extremely limited in this closed-canopy stand of adult pines. The forb most abundant (at least at this autumn season) was tall goldenrod (Solidago altissima) which was widespread thoughout this general area. Tall goldenrod (and other) forbs were sparse to absent from the forest floor deeper inside this plantation. Grasses were "scarce as hens' teeth" if not absent.

There was very limited reproduction of loblolly pine, an Intolerant species. Most pine regeneration was on the perimeter of this stand (see below). Even at the edge of this plantation pine reproduction was noticeably limited, and much less than than that of hardwood species.

169. Deeper into the stand of maturing loblolly pine- More interior views of a mature or nearly mature loblolly pine plantation introduced in the preceding sequence of three slides. Mature is a term applied to an individual tree or an even-aged stand that 1) is capable of sexual reproduction, 2) has reached most of its potential growth in height, or 3) has grown to merchantable size or dimensions (Helms, 1998). In the area in which this stand was growing the site index is set for 50 years (ie. standard or typical plantation of loblolly pine reaches harvest age for saw timber at about 50 years).

The major shrub at local spatial scale in understorey of this stand was American beautyberry. Other shrubs included peppervine, yaupon, smooth sumac, and Japanese honeysuckle. Hardwood tree species included black cherry, Shumard oak, southern red oak, southern sweetbay, It was noteworthy that sweetgum, the regionally ubiquitous pioneer tree species, was absent from this stand of almost-mature loblolly pine. Species of grrasses and grasslike plants were also not present (at least not at meaningful cover, density, etc.). Tall goldenrod, the major forb on edge of this plantation, was not growing deeper in the interior of this closed-canopy stand.

Smaller branches of loblolly pine on the forest floor had been torn off by winds of a recent hurricane that barely brushed this area six weeks earlier.

170. Ground level under nearly ripe loblolly pine- The lowest layer of range vegetation in a plantation of second-growth adult (nearly harvest-ready logs) loblolly pine ( roughly 15-20 inches DBH; tree age approximately 45 years) in central Pineywoods of east Texas. Lower layers of forest vegetation were best developed at the edge of the stand which was what was presented in these two "photoquadrants". American beautyberry was the dominant understorey species in the area of these two "nested photoplots". American beautyberry and peppervine swapped roles as understorey dominant back and forth nearly throughout the forest floor of this plantation. Here along the perimeter there were a few loblolly pine seedlings, but these were of much less cover and density than hardwood species including Shumard oak, southern red oak, black cherry, and southern sweetbay. There was also considerable cover of the invasive alien Japanese honeysuckle.

Downed boughs of loblolly pine (visible in both of these photographs) were minor wind damage from a hurricane that "just caught the edge" of this part of the Texas Pineywoods six weeks earlier.

171. Pepper in the pines- Shoot tips of peppervine (Ampelopsis arborea) growing in the lower woody layer of the understorey of a plantation of second-growth adult (nearly mature) loblolly pine in Texas Pineywoods. These peppervine plants were growing in the stand of about approximately 45 year-old (15-20 inches DBH) pines featured immediately above. Peppervine swapped places with American beautyberry as the dominant shrub on this forest range. Peppervine is in the Vitaceae along with various species of grape and Virginia creeper.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October.

172. Blacker than pepper- Two fruits of peppervine at shoot apex. This was a close-up shot of the tip of the shoot in the second slide shown immediately above. The fruit of peppervine is interpreted as a berry (Diggs et al., 1999, p. 1066). While this member of the grape family produces seed (one to several per berry) most reproduction is asexual with new clonal shoots "coming up everywhere" (and at considerable distances from the parent plant). This feature facilitates propagation of this plant as a native ornamental shrub widely used by local hillfolk in certain locales. This abundant "long distance" sprouting is also the basis of the colloquial name of "Arkansas traveler" (a most fitting title though one seldom seen in the scientific literature). But you saw it here!

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October.

173. Climax grass on seral stages of forest- Hairawn muhly--known also as Gulf muhly, mist grass, pink muhly-- (Muhlenbergia capillaris) is an eragrostoid grass that responds to grazing as a decreaser. In other words, hairawn (or sometimes simply hair) muhly is a climax species. This successional status, however, is for more open and not dense or closed canopy forests. On transitory forest ranges like many loblolly pine forests, especially plantations, hairawn muhly is (or will be) absent from forests of mature loblolly pine (ie. closed-canopy forests). This grass--along with almost all other herbaceous species--was absent from the nearly mature (roughly 45 year-old pines) loblolly pine stand featured immediately above.

Hairawn muhly is well-adapted to the forest site (and various others) featured here. Hair muhly is a native in natural loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods forests typical of the Pineywoods. Artificial or highly man-modified (anthropogenic) forests like loblolly plantations result in ultimate exclusion of this decreaser grass. The specimens shown here were growing on a plot at the East Texas Plant Materials Center adjacent to the stand of the adult and nearly mature (15 to 20 inch DBH) loblolly pine presented immediately above.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October.

174. Hairawn, hairyawn, or Gulf muhly- Sexual shoots of hairawn or Gulf muhly (plus a few of sideoats grama [Bouteloua curtipendula], Texas State Grass). This is a strongly and densely cespitose grass that is adpted to sandy or other well-drained soils and, in general, to droughty, harsher sites along the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts. It can be found as an occasional plant along margins of the coastal marshes and prairies though it thrives best in forest openings and savannahs.

The upper shoots, panicles, and spikelets of hairyawn muhly are some of the most uniquely colored of any North American grass. This makes it a favorite with native landscapers. Sadly, hairyawn muhly is endangered in much of its original range, especially in more interior parts of the Mid-Atlantic Region.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October.

175. Tiny, dainty, and unforgetably pigmented- Panicle branches and narrow spikelets of hairyawn or Gulf muhly. Hair- (or hairy-) awn is most likely in reference to the general hirsute features of spikelets although there are some short hairs on the lemma callus. The most conspicuous feature of this native perennial is its pink to purplish pigmentation in the pronounced panicle which can be over half the height of the total shoot. At this flowering stage palatablity to grazing animals is bound to be comparatively low. Gulf muhly probably as more potential as a native landscaping plant. It is an eye-catching plant and one of the more beautiful coastal grasses. Gulf muhly should be cherished and encouraged throughout its biological range.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October; fruit-ripening stage..

176. More open canopy and more abundant feed- A loblolly pine forest of widely spaced, naturally regenerated, almost-mature trees--and with well-developed lower layers of vegetation--was introduced in these "from some distance" photographs. These first two slides presented physiogonomy, structure, and overall species composition of this Pineywoods forest range that represented the more native (naturally occurring) form or variant of the loblolly pine forest cover type.

The loblolly pine stand featured here and the two stands presented in several subsequent photographs were examples of permanent forest range in contrast to transitory forest range which is the more typical condition or state of most loblolly pine plantations. Under the typical, the standard practice of, plantation forestry tree density is high enough that eventually these industrial (commercial) forests develop a closed canopy that effectively excludes light below tree crowns which results in loss of lower forest layers and nothing except pine needle-covered forest floors. In such plantation forests, especially those in which trees are grown to sawtimber size, a grazable/browsable understorey is temporary and merely a transition stage to a closed-canopy stand of mature lobolly pine. In the loblolly pine forest featured here, density of adult pines was low enough that these stands could not become closed-canopy forests (ie. range was not transitory). This pair and the next nine sets of slides with their captions presented a photographic range reconnaissance of natural reproduction, second-growth loblolly pine. This forest range vegetation was more characteristic of native loblolly pine Pineywoods forests. There was considerable difference in cover (relative and absolute) of hardwood and herbaceous (largely grass) plants, and their respecitve layers in this vegetation, as a result of different frequencies of prescribed fire.

This second-growth loblolly pine forest (this and the various stands presented in this section) were established by air-seeding following clearcutting. Subsequent to tree establishment by aeiral seeding the forest was thinned twice (up to time of these photographps). It was renowned as some of the finest habitat for eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) in the Texas Pineywoods. It was also one of the best examples of the loblolly pine-mixed hardwood forest type currently in existence in this region.

Age of adult loblolly pine ranged from approximately 35 to 50+ years. This was a greater range in age than that shown in plantations of planted trees such as the one presented immediately above. There was also "daylight and dark" difference in amount of herbaceous vegetation, especially of grasses, and, in some infrequently burned locations, of hardwood species in lower layers of this loblolly pine forest range. The major hardwood tree species in the vegetation shown in these two slides was black or Texas hickory (Carya texana). There was also some sweetgum, the major hardwood pioneer tree species. The dominant herbaceous species based on aspect abundance (relative foliar cover, density, frequency) was pinehill bluestem or eastern little bluestem (Andropogon divergens= Schizachyrium scoparium var. divergens). Longleaf woodoats (Uniola sessilfolia) was the associate grass and herbaceous species. The most common (abundant) forb at this early autumn season was tall goldenrod. (This species was also the principal forb at outer areas and perimeter in the loblolly pine plantation just described above.) Typical pioneer (weedy) forbs like the various composites growing on clearcuts and young loblolly pine plantations (shown above) were absent from this forest that was populated by mostly mature pine.

Shrubs were comparatively uncommon in this forest range. Frequent prescribed fire was undoubtedly a major factor responsible for this phenomenon, but even in portions that had been burnt infrequently, and supported considerable cover of hardwood tree seedlings and stump shoots, shrubs were generally limited. Smooth and winged or shining sumac (Rhus glabra and R. copallina, respectively) were the major shrubs throughout much, if not most, of this forest. This was consistent with regular forest burning. Rhus species typically respond with some of the most prolific sprouting of any shrubs following range fires, especially under a regime of frequent, low intensity fire. American beautyberry, often the dominant shrub in both loblolly and shortleaf pine forests in the Pineywoods, was the second most common shrub in this forest where it was dominant only at local scale.

Winston 8 Ranch, Nacogdoches County, Texas. October; autumnal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

177. Under more and younger pines- Understorey of a second-growth, naturally regenerated stand of loblolly pine that was burned periodically by prescription. Pine trees in this stand were younger and smaller and growing at greater density than those shown in the preceding and subsequent photographs. There was also greater canopy cover than in stands of older, larger, and more widely spaced loblolly pine elsewhere in this forest. Pinehill bluestem and longleaf woodoats were the dominant and associate herbaceous species in this stand as in those with more mature pines, but American beautyberry was the locally dominant shrub more often than where tree density and crown cover were less. In this latter situation sumac species tended to be dominant shrubs or, under less frequent prescribed burning, young hardwoods like black hickory and sweetgum had greater cover in the understorey and "crowded out" shrub species. (These situations were shown below.)

Forbs were not common. Most of these were composites like tall goldenrod or sharp gayfeather or sharp blazingstar (Liatris acidota).

There was some loblolly pine regeneration in the understorey of this stand (first of these photographs), which though limited, was more than adequate to maintain current stocking of pine.

178. Pines and pinehill bluestem- Physiogonomy and community structure of this loblolly pine-pinehill bluestem second-growth forest with its open (irregular, incomplete) canopy from widely scattered adult pines and a grassy understorey that included a few hardwood seedlings/saplings provided ideal cattle range and good habitat for eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris), the targeted wildlife crop. Longleaf woodoats was the "also ran" associate herbaceous species. There were almost no forbs other than widely--very widely--scattered plants of sharp gayfeather and tall goldenrod.

This local stand of loblolly pine forest had been frequently burned by prescription that had the goal to maximize understorey development. Prescription burning coupled with low pine stocking (relatively low stand density of pine) resulted in the openness, development of a prominent herbaceous layer, and general sparcity of hardwood species in this forest vegetation. These terms and their application to forest and range management practice were defined and discussed in the caption immediately below.

Loblolly pine in this stand were from natural regeneration (= natural reproduction) which was defined by the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) as "the establishment of a plant or a plant age class from natural seeding, sprouting, suckering, or layering". Natural seeding is the mode of sexual reproduction for loblolly pine. Trees in this stand ranged in age from approximately 35 to 50 years. Some adult trees were mature for market purposes, but most pines were regarded as too young to harvest for optimum yield of sawtimber.

179. "What do ya mean there's no grass in the Pineywoods?"- A common perception among folks not familar with Pineywoods is an image of thick stands of loblolly pine with forest floors of nothing but pine straw. While there certainly are forests just like that, especially pulpwood stands (some examples were included in this chapter), this is not the only kind of loblolly pine-dominated forest community among Pineywoods cover types. The numerous "samples" of the example forest featured here introduced students to the form of loblolly pine-hardwood forest (forest cover variant or subtype of SAF 82) with pine stand density sufficiently low enough that herbaceous plants thrived and comprised lower layer(s) of the forest. Frequent prescribed burning had been a major part of management of this forest stand. This herbaceous vegetation (along with accompanying young hardwoods) that resulted from these management practices was ideal range for cattle and part of critical habitat for eastern wild turkey.

Stand density as applied in forestry practice is both a measurement tool and applied concept that is used to explain features of forest. Stand density can mean "a quantitative measure of stocking expressed either absolutely in terms of number of trees, basal area, or volume per unit area or relative to some standard conditions" or as "a measure of the degree of crowding of trees within stocked areas commonly expressed by various growing space ratios" (Helms, 1998). In the stand shown here and in several subsequent photographs loblolly pines had relatively low stand density so that the forest canopy of mature (or nearly mature) pines was open enough to permit adequate light for development of lower layers of forest vegetation. The main beneficiary of such stocking and stand density was pinehill bluestem, the herbaceous dominant. Longleaf woodoats, the distant herbaceous associate, and some composite forbs shared this layer with pine bluestem. There were also some hardwood (angiosperm) shrubs plus some seedlings and saplings of tree species, but in stand shown here other species "played second fiddle" to loblolly pine and pine bluestem.The vegetational outcome of this forest management was forest range, natural vegetation at odds with the sterotypic image that many people perceive of Pineywoods forests (including some who live in the Pineywoods).

Range vegetation presented in these two photographs was in the same stand introduced in the immediately preceding two slides. Loblolly pine had been established by natural regeneration and most trees were mostly in the same age class being approximately 35 to 50 years old. There was limited recruitment (reproduction resulting in addition of a new age class) of loblolly pine, but it appeared adequate for maintenance of current stand density. (Regeneration was presented separately in a photograph below.)

These two photographs presented a "nested" view of range vegetation by showing a general view of the range plant community in the first slide and a "zoomed-in" shot of the lower, predominately herbaceous, layer in the second slide.

180. Not all grass at that- Another 'nested" set of slides which, like the pair of photographs immediately above, took viewers from a more panning to a zoomed view of understorey vegetation in a second-growth loblolly pine stand subjected to frequent prescribed burning. Density of pine in this stand was low enough that a closed canopy forest could not develop and exclude light from lower levels of forest vegetation. Instead a well-developed herbaceous layer dominated by pinehill bluestem persisted so that this was permanent forest range (in contrast to transitory forest range characteristic of commercial pine plantations).

Hardwood species--mostly sweetgum and black hickory--comprised a lower woody layer in this open-canopy forest. Shrubs (American beautyberry and sumac were the major ones) were very limited in this stand, for whatever reasons. Forbs were also extremely sparse and mostly limited to composites like sharp gayfeather and tall goldenrod. Longleaf woodoats, one of the more widespread and (often, dominant) native grasses in the Pineywoods, had been "overwhelmed" by pine bluestem.

The second of these two slides presented a, "up-closer" view of pine bluestem and early sapling stage of the two major hardwoods. It also featured the blackened bark on the lower trunk of a loblolly pine as physical evidence of frequent prescribed fire in this stand.

181. Regeneration of loblolly pine can be compatable with frequent prescribed fire- Seedlings of loblolly pine amid pine bluestem and American beautyberry in the lower layer of a second-growth forest in which frequent prescribed fire was a major management practice. Age of adult pines ranged from roughly 35 to 50+ years. This loblolly pine forest consisted mostly of adult age classes with a major component comprised of pines approaching maturity with locally abundant reruitment in the seedling age class. There were comparatively few trees in the middle age/size classes. For instance, there were almost no saplings or small-pole size pines. For management purposes this forest was an even-aged stand with primarily adult trees and enough sexual reproduction at seedling stage to have something of this age class present in the forest vegetation. Even-aged management (even-aged methods of regeneration) via clearcutting is the industry standard for loblolly pine. This regeneration method is especially common throughout the Pineywoods.

Successful seedling establishment in this stand would be possible if prescribed burning was polstponed until existing seedlings reached sizes that could withstand a fire intensity reached with fuel that was made up mostly of pinehill bluestem residue remaining after cattle grazing.

182. Looking sharp under pines- Plant of sharp gayfeather or sharp blazingstar (Liatris acidota) in the understorey of the second-growth loblolly pine stand treated with frequent prescribed fire. This was one of the few forbs in this cattle-grazed, frequently burnt, forest of naturally regenerated loblolly pine (35 to 50+ year- old pines).

Nacogdoches County, Texas. October

183. "Paired plots" (so to speak)- Physiogonomy, structure, and species composition of two adjacent stands of loblolly pine forest range managed under two different fire regimes. The stand in the first photograph was on the same stand that was shown and described in the six photograph-caption units immediately above the example of sharp gayfeather. Exact fire frequency (years between two fires) was not known, but the fire regime was such as to have major impact on species composition of this forest range. The most conspicuous effects of frequent prescribed burning aside from prevention of most pine regeneration was limitation of hardwod cover and commensurate herbage yield of pinehill bluestem.

The second of these two photographs was of a conterminous loblolly pine stand which had been fired with substantially less frequency than the forest range shown in the first of these photographs (and several preceding ones). The less frequently burnt loblolly pine range presented in the second photograph (and in the next two pairs of photographs immediately below) had considerably greater cover of hardwood tree speceis, black hickory and sweetgum making up almost all of this, and commensurably less herbage of pinehill bluestem. Differences in intensity of fires, if any, on these two adjacent forest ranges was unknown. It was possible that fire intensities were different, but it would be speculation to hazard a view that intensity was greater on the less frequently fired loblolly pine range due to fuel buildup or, conversely, that intensity was less where less frequently burned due to less of the readily flammable fuel from pinehill bluestem and more of the less-flammable hardwood biomass.

184. Hardwoods instead of grass- Forest range on second-growth stand of adult loblolly pine with layer(s) of hardwoods developing in absence of frequent surface fire. Sweetgum and black hickory had come in on a loblolly pine range burnt at widely spaced intervals. The range of this forest stand was adjacent to a comparable range that received frequent prescribed fire and that consequently had very little hardwood cover and much higher yield (standing crop) of pinehill bluestem. The latter loblolly pine forest range was shown and described above.

In these two and the following (the next) two slides, the range of a loblolly pine stand subjected to less frequent prescribed burning was presented. Replacement of pinehill bluestem and longleaf woodoats (dominant and associate herbaceous speceis, respectively) by the two hardwood tree species provided students with a dramatic difference in development, structure, and species composition of lower forest strata in natural loblolly pine forests of the pine-hardwood-grass cover type (SAF 82) in the Texas Pineywoods.

185. Less grass and more sprouts- "Nested" set of "photoquadrants" showing general or summary view (first slide) and a shorter focal point sample (second slide) of loblolly pine forest range under treatment with infrequent surface fire. Less frequent use of prescribed burning (longer nonburn periods) on a second-growth loblolly pine range resulted in rapid growth and greatly increased cover and density of hardwoods (mostly sweetgum and black hickory) in lower layers of forest vegetation as compared to an adjacent loblolly pine forest range that was burned by prescription at greater return rates (higher frequency of prescribed fire). Both of the contiguous loblolly pine stands had the same major plant species in lower layers of the forest range community: pinehill bluestem, sweetgum, and black hickory. The general or overall difference between the two forest ranges was greater density and cover (absolute and relative) of the hardwoods and a corresponding reduction in cover and herbage yield (herbaceous standing crop) of pinehill bluestem on the less frequently fired range. Density of adult pine trees was the same.

In addition to and aside from this lesson, a second major concept for students studying these examples dealt with wildlife habitat, improved forest range for eastern wild turkey in this example. A patchwork of different forest communities had developed in various loblolly pine stands that were burnt at different time intervals (that is, periods between successive fires; or, in language of Fire Science, different fire frequencies). This mosaic of forest patches of different plant communities created superior habitat for eastern wild turkey, the game crop species chosen for this loblolly pine forest.

In a theorical construct, this could be viewed in context of Landscape Ecology where the various stands of loblolly pine were patches and even corridors within the matrix of the overall loblolly pine-hardwood-grass forest cover type. Viewed from perspective of forest management (heavy emphasis placed on economic as well as ecological considerations) and applied practice these various stands or, same thing from a grazing/browsing orientation, different tracts of forest range were components of the whole commercial forest. On this forest property, raising of calves as a traditional market commodity and production of wild turkeys as a huntable resource for revenue through egress fees (payment for the privilege of entering private property to pursue wildlife) were forest products the same as growing sawtimber to be sold as stumpage. Stumpage is standing timber to a buyer or cutter and thus is the value of uncut timber expressed per unit area of land such as by the acre (Helms, 1998).

Important technical distinction: the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) distinguised between industrial and nonindustrial forests. Industrial forests were described as being forest lands owned by firms that operated primary wood-using plants and that were therefore managed primarily for wood products. Nonindustrial forests on the other hand were characterized as forest lands owned by individuals or companies other than forest industry and on which forest management migh include goals and products other than timber production. Commercial forestry was defined as "the practice of forestry with the object of producing timber and other forest produce as a business enterprise or for sale to a business enterprise" (Helms, 1998). Production of livestock and wildlife as forest enterprises (regardless of how revenue is obtained) is "part and parcel" of commercial forest management the same as production of wood commodities. Such commercial forests are not generally regarded as industrial forests, but they can be (usually are) operated as businesses or commercial endeavors. This would not preclude commercial operation of forests for philotrophy, but such forests would still be managed for profit (or at least to minimize economic loss).

186. Loblolly logs in Luuisiana- Log of lobolly pine logs (compartively small logs) in a small town in northern Louisiana. Thisis the equivalent of a truckload of wheat headed for the grain elevator in Kansas. The pay-off.

Catahoula Parish, Louisiana. Mid-July.

187. Baby dominants at the edge- Three progressively closer views (a "triple-nested photo-plot") at edge of a southern red oak (Quercus falcata)-loblolly pine forest in the western portion of the Pineywoods complex of southeastern North America. These three views featured small saplings of the two co-dominant species of this form (a variant of the Loblolly Pine-Hardwood cover type) of the general oak-pine forest. This young forest vegetation was on the perimeter of a second-growth forest in the forested part of the lower Red River Valley. At this close proximity to an older Pineywoods forest there was ample seed for re-establishment of the climax co-dominants (the major pine species and the major hardwood species). There were also some young trees of white oak present in that adjoining older forest community.

This forest (these two forest compartment or tracts) were immediately upland (upslope) from a bottomland foresst that included bald cypress (l

Sevier County, Arkansas. Mid-July; estival aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Red River Bottomlands ecoregion- 35g (Woods et al., 2004).

188. Inside a "ripening" plantation- Interior of a plantation of loblolly pine in the western portion of the Pineywoods complex of southeastern North America. This rather intensively managed forest (a monoculture of loblolly pine) was in the natural forest area of the lower Red River Valley. This plantation of nearly "ripe" (almolst ready for harvest, depending on whether for paper and/or pole production) loblolly pine was in close proximity to the younger forest vegetation presented in the immediatley preceding slide/caption seet.

In the human-modified forest vegetation shown here there were almost no tree species other than loblolly pine except for a few trees of southern red oak that grew naturally in this silviculatural field (a tree farm). The understorey was almost exclusively woody, and of the single species of American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana). Herbaceous species did not stand much of chance in the double woody canopy of this simple plant community.

189. Representative of its kind- A large (about two and a half foot diameter breast height), fully mature southern red oak stood at the edge of a plantation of loblolly pine, the interior of which was presented in the three slides of the immediately preceding slide/caption set. There were a few immature trees of southern red oak in the interior of the pine plantation of nearly "full-grown" loblolly pine, but all (any) of the would-have-been mature southern red oak had been felled so that commercial loblolly pine of forest-industry breeding (hybrid parent stock) could be planted in their place. Most (though not all) of the southern red oaks and native (naturally occurring; nondomesticated) loblolly pine growing in this forest had been eliminated. This member of the original (pre-plantation) forest stood at the edge of the commercial pine plantation in stark testimony as the natural co-dominant (with loblolly pine) of this forest that had developed in the lower forested part of the Red River Valley. These two co-dominants as young saplings were introduced in the slide/caption set immediately above the preceding slide/caption set (two sets above).

The trunk of this large southern red oak (again, at the edge of the loblolly pine plantation and one of the few southern red oak to survive silvicultural treatments for production of commercial loblolly pine) was a living "fossil" to represent its kind as the dominant hardwood of this range cover type. A shoot of Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) crossed this trunk diagonally from bottom-left to top-right. A shoot of American beautyberry, the understorey dominant, spread right to left across the lowerst part of the southern red oak trunk.

Loblolly Pine-Bahiagrass Agrosilvopastoral System- A Texas Pineywoods Example of Agroforestry

Throughout much of the Old South--Cotton Belt, the original Cotton Kingdom, land of the Confederate States of America--much, probably most, of the pristine forests of the eastern decicuous formation, including the Pineywoods Region (the pine-hardwood forest types), were converted to cropland. This conversion of forest (also woodland and savannah) to field crops was mostly for row crops, primarily either tobacco and, later, cotton or cotton straightaway. For any number of reasons--chemical, biological, and economic-- upland cotton became an unprofitable crop for much of the agricultural region known as the Cotton Belt. This was especially the case of some of the more marginal and even submarginal lands such as those that were highly erodible, made up of less fertile soils, low-lying fields subject to flooding, distant from markets, etc. Even cotton production on some of the better land in parts of the Cotton Belt became untenable due to diseases and insect pests like the cotton boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis). Consequently, many cotton producers turned to various alternative crops including beef cattle and wood production. These latter two crops were (are) often combined in 1) operations utilizing ranges of Pineywoods forests on which pulp wood and/or timber were grown or 2) those combining introduced (agronomic) forages with wood crops.

The latter form of stock-growing, largely cattle-raising, by "forage farming" coupled (integrated) with tree crops is a combination of Agronomy and Forestry known as Agroforestry. The Society of American Foresters defined Agroforestry as " a land-use system that involves deliberate retention, introduction, or mixture of trees or other woody perennials in crop and animal production systems to take advantage of economic or ecological interactions among the components" (Helms, 1998). Generally tree, forage, and animal crops (eg. beef cattle) under Agroforestry require more intensive management and greater inputs of labor and capital than stock-raising on forest ranges (Range Management). Throughout much of the South this intensive production system requires the growing of conifers that are in effect domesticated, most commonly loblolly pine or slash pine (Pinus elliottii), in plantations. Wood production--whether for pulp, posts, poles, logs, etc.--from pine plantations is the standard industrial forestry model in southeastern North America. .When the grazing crop on intensively managed pine plantations is tame pasture of introduced (= domestic or agronomic) forage species, beef cattle production also means more intensive management of livestock and grazing land (eg. higher stocking rates). Animal agriculture must of necessity complement and in other ways be compatable with wood production under such production systems..

The form of agroforestry that has integrated combinations of wood, forage (as pasture and/or mechanically harvested forage), and animal (usually meat animal such as beef cattle) management and production is generally known as agrosilvopastoralism, "a form of agroforestry consisting of tree (woody perennial), crop, and pasture and livestock components". When there is not a crop component present the form of agroforestry is silvopastoralism or silvipastoralism (= silvopastoral system), "a form of agroforestry system consisting of the trees (woody perennials) and pasture and animal components" (Helms, 1998).

Presented in this section was an example of an agrosilvopastoral system (agrosilvipastoralism) in the Texas Pineywoods that consisted of loblolly pine and combination loblolly and longleaf pine plantations having an herbaceous layer (grazable understorey) comprised almost exclusively of bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum). Bahiagrass is perennial panicoid grass native to South America that was introduced to North America to be used as a tame (= domesticated or agronomic) pasture species. Bahiagrass subsequently naturalized to become a permanent (at least in human time scale) species in the Pineywoods flora and, of more practical importance, a major or even dominant component of Pineywoods forest vegetation. In fact, bahiagrass became an important (and a particularily noxious) weed over much of the region in which it naturalized. This latter phenomenon is attributable to the fact that bahiagrass can survive and displace other (and more productive) agronomic species such as the more recently released cultivars of bermudagrass (Cynodon dactyledon) as well as native plant species.

A practical "if-you-can't-lick-them-join them" management practice is to graze (or harvest as hay) naturalized bahiagrass as if it were a "super-tough" range grass. Production of animal commodities from swards of naturalized bahiagrass by range (or quasi-range) management techniques (eg. manipulation or husbandry of the forage crop being more or less limited to grazing and/or haying management and with little or no reliance on fertilization, liming, seeding, etc.) still qualifies as a form of silvopastoralism, though it is one more of extensive rather than intensive inputs. Likewise (though conversely), from the perspecitve of the tree (wood) crop, loblolly pines grown under the prevailing industrial forest system of the Pineywoods are intensively managed because they are--though a native species--artificial selections (varietal stock= clonal material) planted (in rows nonetheless as "pines in lines") and thinned at specific intervals. Longleaf pine has not been the Pinus species of choice for industrial forestry in the Pineywoods (even though it was the mainstay of the early forest industry in Texas and western Louisiana). As such, longleaf pine has not been subjected to the extreme pressure of artificial selection as has loblolly pine. Currently there are concerted efforts to reestablish longleaf pine as a major species for commercial wood production in the Pineywoods Region.

The loblolly and longleaf pine-bahiagrass-beef cattle agrosilvopastoral system described in this section was an example of agricultural production that was a practical, economical, and sustainable form of industrial forestry complete with multiple use goods and services. This was an experimental plantation forest-hay field described by Oswald et al. (2008). This unique form of forest-hay land-naturalized range was a commonsense approach that had particuilar application on land that had been deforested, converted to farmland, and partially reforested as one type of tree farm (ie. a form of tree farming with a naturalized range component used for production of hay and animal commodities).

Organizational Note: general treatment of bahiagrass, an introduced or domesticated forage grass, managed as a range species was included in the grassland chapter entitled Introduced Forages.

190. Basic unit- Different views of one land unit of an agrosilvopastoral system consisting of naturalized bahiagrass pasture containing blocks of loblolly pine (and, later, both loblolly and longleaf pine) plantations in the central Pineywoods of east Texas. Plantations of different ages planted to containerized varietal selections of loblolly pine and more recent plantings of loblolly and longleaf pine were being grown adjacent to each other within a hay field consisting almost exclusively of the introduced (and nows naturalized) South American panicoid grass, bahiagrass. The spatial arrangement or pattern of bahiagrass hay field and pine plantations consisted of larger proportions of tree-free field and smaller areas in long, narrow strips of closely planted pines with each such strip comprised of the same age class of tree of either loblolly pine or loblolly and longleaf pine in combination. In this spatial arrangement there were different rotations of pines (one or two species) superimposed in a crop rotation sequence on the naturalized bahiagrass. In addition, there were two different row widths or spacings (distances between two rows of pines) of four (4) yards and ten (10) yards in the different strip plantations. Ages of pines ranged from five down to two years with younger trees being the result of replacement plantings necessitated by loss of planted trees from rooting by feral swine. In this study, bahiagrass and pines were fertilized with 20-8-15 at the rate of 375 pounds per acre (Oswald et at. 2008).

The agrosilvicultural unit featured in this section was used for hay production in conjuction with pine plantation forestry. This particular bahiagrass hay field-pine plantation was an experimental unit for study of hay production, pine establishment, and influence of young loblolly and longleaf pines on grass hay yields. Hay had been harvested periodically and at time of these photographs was in the recovery phase of the harvest cycle in early autumn. Bahiagrass was in anthesis to grain milk-stage. Other Paspalum and Panicum species were present though as incidental species in trace proportions and therefore were of little consequence from management and production perspectives. Pinehill and broomsedge bluestems were locally abundant along edges of the bahiagrass hay field next to pine plantations (see below), but they were not identified in the interior of the naturalized grassland. At this season and in the dense bahiagrass sward forbs were minor to largely absent except for local stands of hogwort or wooly croton (Croton capitatus); the rank-growing composite, yankeeweed; and naturalized rattlebox or bigbag sesbania (Sesbania punicea). (Yankeeweed growing on pine plantations was covered above.) These weedy forbs were far more abundant along rows of young pines and at outer edges of plantations of older pines. It seemed that this was due to mowing at some distance from trees, presumedly to avoid cutting them (or, more likely, damaging mowing machines).

The land of this silvopastoral system had been in virgin Pineywoods forest (most likely loblolly pine--hardwood; SAF 82) at time of settlement by white man. Exact history of land use was unknown and perhaps included row crop farming, especially upland cotton. Pasture plantings had been part of the history of agricultural use of this land, but it seemed most probable that much if not most of the bahiagrass currently growing on these pastures and fields was naturalized in the same matter as across much of this region. (The day before taking these slides the author photographed a gilgai form of Blackland Prairie that, irrespective of its virgin sod, had been invaded by bahiagrass twhich, in combination with improper haying management, had displaced (replaced) to considerable degree the native tallgrass species.

Pasture management in the silvopastoral component system was limited primarily to proper grazing management of the bahiagrass as naturalized range and not as intensively managed permanent pasture (ie. in this system the introduced and now self-sustainig bahiagrass was not managed as an agronomic species). In the classification scheme of Vallentine (1990, 2001) bahiagrass pasture and hay field was seeded range (introduced species), a category of long-term grazing land or range.

Pangola County, Texas. October. Highly modified form of the following forest range vegetation classification units. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

191. "Wide line" plantings- Two rows of clonal-stock loblolly pine planted at widths of 10 yards on naturalized and extensive managed bahiagrass pasture currently used for hay production in the Texas Pineywoods. Pinehill and broomsedge bluestems were the two secondmost abundant grasses. They were much more plentiful next to planted pines. Other species Paspalum and Panicum present were incidental and of no consequence management-wise. Forbs were mostly the weedy species hogwort or wooly croton, yankeeweed, and rattlebox or bigbag sesbania. These were more abundnat along rows of pines avoided by hay mowers.

Large trees in the distanct background were nearly mature (over 40 years of age) loblolly pine in another block of plantations. Bahiagrass had been recently mowed for hay and was in the regrowth or recovery phase.

192. Newest crop and a new addition- Rows of wide-space, alternate-planted loblolly pine and longleaf pine ("every other one" planting) as part of a pine plantation block (strips of planted pines of differenrt age classes arranged in block pattern) on a naturalized bahiagrass pasture in Texas Pineywoods. This unit was periodically mowed for hay and was in the grass recovery (= regrowth) phase.

Second slide showed a longleaf pine (left) and a loblolly pine (right) in the side-by-side, every other one planting arrangement used in rows of young trees. This was an example of the on-going--though decades belated-effort to restore longleaf pine to its "rightful role" as a native pine used in commercial (indistrial) forestry.

These were three-year old- trees (in contrast to larger five-year-old trees shown in closer-spaced rows) that had been planted to replace those that had been covered by soil from rooting by free-ranging feral hogs (Oswald et al., 2008). There were numerous plants of hogwort or wooly croton growing among these younger pines. There were also occasional small seedlings of Chinese tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum), but according to local foresters the seedlings of this invasive, alien tree cannot compete with the two native pines.

Large oak in bckground was a southern red oak, a remnant of when the natural plant community on this land was a loblolly pine-hardwood forest. (SAF 82).

193. End of rows and down them- End of a plantation of loblolly pine (five-year-old trees) at a row spacing of four yards and the adjoining edge of a tree-free hay field made up almost exclusively of naturalized bahiagrass. At this stage and age-class of loblolly pine there was such a dense tree canopy that almost all of the former herbaceous layer had died out due to insufficient quantites of light. In effect at this tree spacing (row width) two monocultures had formed so both tree-free grassland and pine plantations were required for wood and forage production on the same management unit of an agroforestry system (ie. if the same unit of land was going to be used to produce both wood and forage crops).

Taller shoots of grasses at this edge of naturalized grassland and pine plantation weere both pinehill and roomsedge bluestems. These two species were not found in the hay field dominated by bahiagrass. There were undoubtedly a few plants of these species (along with some Panicum and other Paspalum species besides bahiagrass), but taller-growing, cespitose grasses like pinehill bluestem and even the invader and ruderal species broomsedge could not compete with the aggressive, lower-growing, stoloniferous (sod-forming) bahiagrass under the current regime of frequent, low mowing. Such is the selective grazing feature of the mechanical mowing machine. (The day before these photographs were taken the author photographed invasion and replacement of native tallgrass species by bahiagrass on a virgin-sod Blackland Prairie hay meadow (see Tallgrass Prairie, Interion under Grasslands herein.)

194. Under the pines where the sun sometimes shines- In the sporadically sunlite interior of a plantation of five-year-old loblolly pines planted in row specings of four yards and at within row spacings of about 2.3 yards ((Oswald et al., 2008) naturalized bahiagrass was making its "last stand". The mulching affect of "pine straw" (shed needles) was also a factor that limited the growth of this aggresive, heavy grazing-adapted panicoid grass introduced from South America. There were a few plants of pinehill and broomsedge bluestems also present, but even these Pineywoods natives were no match for shade cast by native pines planted at such "close quarters".

The next photograph revealed at even closer distance the loss of the herbaceous understorey from a typical loblolly pine plantation of close row spacings within five years of tree planting. Continued presence of a forage crop on the same unit of land planted to pine plantations would require some area of tree-free grassland if both wood and forage crops were to be grown.

195. Deep in the pines and out of bahiagrass- In the innermost part of a plantation of five-year-old loblolly pines bahiagrass had been effectively "shaded out" by dense tree canopy. Inescapable conclusion was that within five years of planting fast-growing loblolly pines the grass crop (whether used as pasture or hay) was gone inside pine plantations of closely spaced rows (four yards between rows).

Bahiagrass is a transitory forage crop within pine plantations. This means that if a unit of land is to produce both forage and wood crops on a permanent basis there must be pine-free areas of naturalized bahiagrass-dominated grassland. If some units of land within an agrosilvopastoral or silvopastoral system are planted completely to pine plantations there will have to be other units of land within the agroforestry system that have tree-free grassland; that is, if a particular agroforestry system is to be other than a transitory phase of industrial plantation forestry. Otherwise it is just the industrial standard of wood production by the intensively managed-single commodity pine plantation model (a commercial forest system with minor emphasis on multiple uses).

196. Sward and specimen- Detail of sward of naturalized pasture dominated by bahiagrass in central Texas Pineywoods (first photograph) and close-up view of bahiagrass in this sward (second photograph). These "photoquadrants" were on the tree-free portion of the agrosilvopastoral hay field unit featured above. There were trace amounts of other Paspalum and Panicum species in this sward, but these grasses were of little--if any--practical consequence on this naturalized grassland. Also, there were undoubtedly isolated plants of pinehill and broomsedge bluestems in this sward that were kept in stunted size and dwarfish habit by repeated close mowing. This was evidenced by presence of these two Andropogon species along margins of pine rows and at edges where pine plantations and tree-free hay field abutted. (Hay mowers avoided cutting grass too close to pine trees; knowing machine operators as this author does, this was deemed most likely to avoid damage to mowing machines more than out of concern for planted trees).

Pangola County, Texas. October; phenology of bahiagrass was anthesis to milk-stage of grain.

Natural Reforestation in Texas Pineywoods

Secondary plant succession and recovery of loblolly pine-hardwoods forest in the Texas Pineywoods Vegetational Area was shown in the short section below. One example of an old-field on an upland forest site and another example of cutover land on a lowland (bottomland) forest site provided a "successional sampler" of vegetation development within the general hardwood-pine forest cover type.

Natural Reforestation on Old Fields ("Go Back Land")

197. Forest to field to city back to forest- This is new forest vegetation on land with an old story. In east Texas within the Pineywoods Region a virgin loblolly pine-oak-hickory forest was cleared so that the land could be used as a small patch for raising field crops, mostly upland cotton (Gossypium hirstum) and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum). After years of soil erosion and mining of the soil by farming without fertilization, crop rotation, green manure crops, and so on the land was abandoned (retired from farming). The land became what ecologists refer to as an old field (a former farm field; abandoned cropland). The farm field had been "let go" when it finally became "farmed out" (= soil severely depleted of critical nutrients). The land lay fallow because it was no longer profitable for production of field crops. The old field began to "go back" toward a loblolly pine-hardwood forest. Then urban sprawl encroached on this former farmland that had subsequently become just another old field of "weeds and brush". For a period of time the land was "developed" (converted) into commercial property. Eventually even the small business on this tract of real estate folded and moved off leaving the land to once again progress toward, to eventually revert back to, some semblance of a loblolly pine-hardwood forest. One stage of revegetation (of forest redevelopment or reforestation) on this parcel of forest land was shown in these two photographs. A slightly more advanced state of revegetation was presented in the two photographs immediately below. Both sets of slides portrayed vegetation "going back" toward some form of Pineywoods forest.

Old fields are also known more colloquially as "go-back land" because the vegetation on such land redevelops by the processes of secondary plant succession to "go back" toward the original vegetation that existed before extreme human-caused disturbance. That is the original (virgin or pristine) plant community, the primeval forest, revegetates the land to the extent that it can given eroded and depleted soil, absence of some sources of seed or other plant propagules, introduction of alien plant species, disturbance by exotic animals, etc. The dynamics of natural vetetation restoration (reforestation in this instance) is by orderly, sometimes relatively predictable, patterns in which one plant community gradually replaces another plant community until the end of this sequence is reached. The fiinal, the end-of-sequence, terminal plant community is known as the climax vegetation (or simply the climax).The land on which this pattern slowly--almost inexorably--takes place by secondary plant succession is a sere. The different, distinctive plant communities that develop on the sere as stepwise or sequential plant communities (assemblages of plant species following in successive order) are seral stages. Two such seral stages were visible in this old field, that is on this successionally early, second-growth (for at least the second time in human history) loblolly pine-hardwood forest.

The area of old field (abandoned city lot would be more specific in regards to recent human usage) in the foreground had suffered greater soil loss through accelerated erosion than the land in the background. The area in the foreground had received more intense human disturbance (building construction, foot and vehicular traffic, heavier and more frequent mowing, and greater surface runoff of water due to removal of plant cover). Most of the plant cover on the foremost portion of the abandoned field-city lot consisted of annual herbaceous species of which old-field threeawn (one of the textbook colonizing species in humid eastern North America) was the dominant. The distant "second place" species on the most disturbed portion of this go-back land was the perennial bunchgrass, broomsedge bluestem (another classic invader of eastern old fields). Blackberry (Rubus sp.) and goldenrod (Solidago sp.) were starting to invade this heavily impacted area.Vaseygrass and Chinese tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum) were two naturalized, exotic species present. There were more seedlings of tallow tree on the portion that was most extremely impacted by man. An example of this exotic brush species was visible in the lower right corner. Chinese tallow tree readily comes in on disturbed areas such as clearcuts (see above), but most on-the-ground observations have suggested that this aggressive alien species, though horribly noxious, cannot compete with fast-growing native seral tree species like sweetgum.

Sweetgum and loblolly pine were the only tree species on this devastated land. Sweetgum is typically the dominant early seral or, frequently, pioneer tree species on old fields and clearcuts. Loblolly pine appears on such denuded land a few years after sweetgum has established. Loblolly pine persists as a major species in late seral to climax forest so its presence in this seral plant community suggested a more advanced stage of forest succession than was actually the case. Pines on this go-back land were young trees (less than a decade old). These same trees would readily survive for a couple of centuries if not killed by natural disaster or human manipulation. Age of long-lived plants on a sere is one variable in determining successional stage in much the same way as is species composition and structure of vegetation. Given that such a high proportion of plant cover on the most degraded part of the old field was comprised of annual herbaceous species, including pioneer species such as old-field threeawn, it was obvious that the plant community in the foreground was an early seral and, perhaps, even the pioneer stage on this sere.

The part of this go-back land shown in the background (treated in the next pair of photographs) had been less disturbed by human activity and had lost less soil than that in the foreground. The back portion of this abandoned field-city lot was also closer to a small tract of land supporting adult sweetgum and loblolly pine that served as seed sources for invasion of the old field by these tree species. Both sweetgum and loblolly pine were advancing (albeit it more slowly) into the more severely disturbed land (foreground) that was also more distant from seed sources. Seedlings and small saplings of both tree species on this most degraded area were visible in these two photographs.

Nacogodoches County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

198. Reclaiming its own- Portion of an old field on which loblolly pine and sweetgum had invaded and were advancing redevelopment of a Pineywoods forest. This was land on which a loblolly pine-hardwood forest had been cleared, used for a succession of land uses, and then abandoned only to undergo secondary plant succession (for at least a second time since occupation of the land by European man). The story thus far was that a primeval Pineywoods forest was cleared and converted to farmland. It was "cropped out" by mismanagement and abandoned. The land become an old field and started "going back" to a form of forest. Then land jobbers, those scourges of the modern age, cleared the young second-growth loblolly pine forest and "developed" the real estate as business property. Business(s) on this commercial property went bust or elsewhere(at least they went) leaving the land abandoned from modern human use once again. And once again, plants and plant communities retuned on the land. Vegetation began to redevelop and, at time of these photographs, was on its way of going back to Pineywoods forest.

The land on this tract of primival forest-to cotton patch-to city lot-back to an early stage of loblolly pine-hardwood forest consisted of an area that had been located behind a highway frontage portion. This latter portion had served as a location for urban businesses which--like the farmers that preceded them-- ultimately abandoned the land. The less intensively used (and abused) portion of abandoned land was not only somewhat less degraded (less soil loss) it was also closer to a stand of adult trees which served as seed sources for loblolly pine and sweetgum, both of which are typically early arrivals on Pineywoods seres undergoing secondary plant succession. Successful occupation of the disturbed land by these two native tree species (the process of invasion in the Clementsian model of plant succession) was evident. Invasion was more advanced than on the land that had been more seriously degraded (described in the immediately preceding caption). Seedlings were continuing to invade both areas of this old field.

The main herbaceous species on this area of less-degraded go-back land were old-field threeawn and broomsedge bluestem with there appearing to be somewhat greater cover of the perennial broomsedge on this successionally more advanced area. Individual plants of the cespitose broomsedge were larger (ie. had more tillers) on this less-disturbed land. This was consistent with them being older than plants on the more recently abandoned portion of this old field-city lot. Blackberry and goldenrod were the other major native species. Vaseygrass and Chinese tallow tree were exotic species that had established on local habitats. Vaseygrass is an introduced, perennial, forage grass that was of obvious benefit on this land and for its recovering forest. Vaseygrass, like broomsedge bluestem or even annual threeawn , was especially valuable for soil cover and protection against accelerated erosion. All grass species were adding valuable organic matter to the impoverished soil. Chinese tallow tree is a dreaded noxious species, but one that apparently cannot successfully compete with native trees on most forest sites.

Natural Reforestation on Cutover Land

199. Exterior view of cutover land in Texas Pineywoods- Physiogonomy, structure, and species composition at overall-view distance of cutover loblolly pine-hardwood (white oak dominant) bottomland forest. This successional (recovering) forest was the vegetational zone just above (elevation) and beyond or "out from" (linear plane distance) and contiguous with a "pin oak flat" of willow oak (Quercus phellos)-sweetgum-river birch (Betula nigra)-American hornbeam, or blue beech (Carpinus caroliniana) floodplain forest type (SAF 88) and a slightly higher second-growth forest of swamp chestnut oak-cherrybark oak type (SAF 91) on the first terrace of Neches River. The "pin oak flat" forest and cherrybark oak-dominated stand were treated separately under the section, Swamps and Related Wetland Forests, in the Texas Pineywoods chapter. Here the emphasis was on natural forest recovery (secondary plant succession) of the loblolly pine-hardwood type (SAF 82 forest cover type).

Although this loblolly pine-white oak forest was conterminous with a wetland forest it was on porous (highly sandy) soil high enough above the usual floodplain that loblolly pine could thrive as the dominant and white oak, a mesic species doing best under better-drained edaphic habitats, was the distant-second dominant down to associate species on some local habitats. Water oak was second most common abundant (second greatest relative crown cover) hardwood tree species. Willow oak and considerably less overcup oak (Q. lyrata) were also present as was the ever-present sweetgum, the standard "number one" pioneer hardwood. Likewise river birch and American hornbeam were present on this forest community adjacent to the "pin oak flats". Also present, however (and indicative of better-drained soils), was eastern baccharis or sea-myrtle, a widespread early seral shrub species on loblolly pine plantations as demonstrated above.

In addition to the replacement of wetland oaks and sweetgum with loblolly pine and white oak, another glaring distinction (the second-most obvious) between this forest range vegetation and that of the adjoining willow oak-laurel oak-sweetgum floodplain forest ("pin oak flats") and, even more so, the cherrybark oak stand was presence of a well-developed herbaceous layer (including longleaf woodoats, one of the defining and dominant grasses of the Texas Pineywoods. Grasslike plants also made up a major component of the herbaceous stratum. Leathery rush (Juncus cariaceus) was the most abundant of these.

The purpose of this section was to illustrate natural re-development of foret vegetation on cutover land of the loblolly pine type in the Texas Pineywoods rather than present climax or advanced seral stages of the loblolly pine-hardwood type which was presented elsewhere in this publication. The classic Clementsian model of secondary plant succession, which was restated in the section immediately above dealing with loblolly pine forest on old fields, has long-proved to be an adequate if not an extraordinary model of vegetation development in the Piedmont physiographic province of North America. The cutover Pineywoods forest shown in this short portion had advanced along its sere to the point of having the species composition--though clearly not the structure and complete cunctioning--of the ultimate forest cover type which this rangeman interpreted as the climax forest. That forest community was described as the potential natural vegetation by Kuchler (19

Although this loblolly pine-mixed oak community had developed on the upper reaches of a river floodplain it was not strictly speaking a bottomland forest cover type (Eyre, 1980, p. 7). This loblolly pine-white oak forest vegetation had similarities to the shortleaf pine-oak type, especially shortleaf pine-white oak forest which is a widespread upland forest community common on uplands throughout Blackland Belt of northeast Texas and the Ozark and Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri.

There were several age classes of all tree species. This was especially conspicuous with loblolly pine and white oak. Note for example pine seedlings in the foreground of the second of these two slides. Variation in diameter of boles of white oak was shown in the second photograph of the two-slide set immediately below.

Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community.Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

200. Reclaiming its rightful place- Loblolly pine along with white oak (the dominant Quercus species) water oak, and willow oak were naturally reforesting (secondary plant succession) cutover land, an upper elevation zone of bottomland loblolly pine-hardwood forest (SAF 82) just outward from (above) the Neches River in Texas Pineywoods. The part of this cutover forest land shown here was just above (slightly higher in elevation than) a cherrybark oak-dominated stand representing the swamp chestnut oak-cherrybark oak cover type (SAF 91) described in the section entitled, Swamps and Related Wetland Forests.

This example of forest vegetation was on the greater floodplain of the Neches River on a higher elevational area that was flooded infrequently. Loblolly pine was the more or greater dominant followed by white oak as a secondary dominant and with water oak and willow oak as associate species. Cherrybark oak was present (mostly an incidental indicator species). Sweetgum was more abundant than this large red oak species, but less common than white oak and the so-called "pin oaks" River birch was locally common on lower microsites. The most frequently encountered shrub was eastern baccharis or sea-myrtle which was also a major shrub on young loblolly pine plantations (see above).

There was a well-developed herbaceous layer dominated by longleaf woodoats with leathery rush (Juncus cariaceus) being a local dominant (on microhabitats of temporarily ponded water and the overall associate herbaceous species. Forbs were not encountered during this visit in early autumn.

The largest trees on this second-growth, recovering forest were loblolly pines (DBH of generally 10 up to a maximum of 14 inches). White oaks were generally 8 to 10 inches DBH). An example of this larger size of white oak was shown in right midground of the first slide. There were numerous age classes of all tree species including seedlings of loblolly pine (foregroundof second slide in the preceding two-slide set) as well as small pine saplings (midground of first of the two slides presented here). The range in diameter of boles of white oak were shown in the second photograph of this pair of pictures.

Several plants of longleaf woodoats were featured in immediate foreground of this second slide (along with a nearly rotted-away stump of white oak from the last harvested wood crop. Smaller boles in background of this second photograph were sweetgum.

Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community.Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

201. Close to trees- Longleaf woodoats, the characteristic dominant grass throughout much of the Pineywoods, thrived under shade of various trunk sizes of water oak on a young, second-growth loblolly pine-oak forest on highert reaches of the Neches River floodplain. In the first of these two slides boles of water oak appeared to be sprouts (water shoots) from the same stump. Difference in size was apparently the result of differences in apical or shoot dominance and/or perhaps age and slightly different light (shade) conditions at microscale.

The second slide presented an individual plant of longleaf woodoats (and with some neighbors behind). Leaf cover, especially of distinctive water oak, formed a litter layer on the soil surface. Such a layer is part of the vegetation of this forest range.

Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community.Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

202. Sexual shoots of longleaf woodoats- Several infloresences (first slide) and detailed view (second slide) of longleaf woodoats growing beneath water oak on cutover land of a loblolly pine-oak forest range on upper reaches of Neches River. Longleaf woodoats was the overall dominant herbaceous species on this range, as on vast acreages throughout the Texas Pineywoods. Hydric microsites of the understorey were dominated by leathery rush (next sequence of slides).

Houston County, Texas. October.

203. Rushed to takeover cutover land- Leathery rush (Juncus cariaceus) dominated local microhabitats of temporarily ponded water on cutover land of loblolly pine-mixed oak forest on upper extents of Neches River floodplain. Overall, longleaf woodoats was the dominant herbaceous species in the understorey and local clearings of this forest range.

Houston County, Texas. October.

204. Leathery rush- Two cespistose plants of a locally dominant grasslike plant on cutover loblolly pine-oak forest on upper reaches of Neches River floodplain (first photograph). Details of shoots on perimeters of these two plants was shown in the second photograph. Plants of leathery rush on this forest range were in late senescent stages of phenology (approaching dormancy). They had sussessfully completed sexual reproduction (next pair of photographs).

Houston County, Texas. October.

205. Inflorescence of leathery rush (Juncus cariaceus)- Details of two panicles of leathery rush at fruit-ripe stage of phenology. Fruit type of Juncus is a loculicidal capsule, "a capsule which dehisces by means of openings into the locules, about midway between the partitions" (Smith, 1977, ps. 229, 300). The charactersitic identifying feature of Juncus cariaceus is location of inflorescences off of one side of (laterally) and below the apex of shoots with prominently round capsules (Diggs et al, 2006, ps. 704, 708-709).

Houston County, Texas. October.

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